Pia Sundqvist

• Rindal, Ulrikke & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). “Oh my gosh!” Engagement with extramural English among 6-year-olds. CALICO journal. ISSN 0742-7778. doi: 10.3138/calico-2025-0016. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Young learners increasingly engage with English outside the classroom walls (extramural English, EE). This study presents empirical research exploring EE engagement among three 6-year-olds in Norway where English is learned as an additional language (L2). Data were collected through a show-and-tell procedure in the home, where the 6-year-olds demonstrated their engagement with digital technologies in English, while reflecting on language use and learning. Audio-recorded observations of EE engagement and commentary from the children and their parents were analyzed inductively to explore engagement with games, YouTube, and music, in an attempt to unpack environmental factors that potentially contribute to L2 learning. The findings showed that the 6-year-olds’ EE engagement was characterized by social interaction and shared interests with family members, in homes with generally positive attitudes towards English. The data analysis reflected the interrelated dimensions of engagement – behavioral, cognitive and emotional – and showed how the joint engagement with English-language technologies in the home induced a readiness to interact in English. While family members at times functioned as knowledgeable others in the young learners’ EE engagement, the 6-year-olds themselves became experts in the show-and-tell procedure. We present concrete advice for formal instruction of English, proposing that targeted classroom instruction can be designed in response to learners’ engagement with EE, specifically by drawing on the interactional readiness elicited by the joint engagement with digital technologies and the show-and-tell procedure.

• Staksrud, Kathrine; Rindal, Ulrikke & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). “Like, they need to touch grass” – L2 English oral proficiency in Norway. Acta Didactica Norden (ADNO). 20(2). doi: https:/journals.uio.no/adnorden/article/view/12990. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  English is the world’s lingua franca, and it is essential for children growing up in Norway to develop oral proficiency in English as an additional language (L2). The importance of oral skills is emphasized in the English curriculum, but there is limited empirical knowledge of how different aspects of L2 oral proficiency are realized in student interactions. The aim of this study is therefore to explore L2 English oral proficiency by analyzing spoken interactions among students in grades 6 and 10, using Norway as a case in point. Data was collected by video-recording small-group spoken interactions elicited by an English speaking test. In total, 21 learners from 4 schools participated: 12 6th-graders in 4 tests and 9 10th-graders in 3 tests. Data was analyzed using an abductive approach and the descriptors of oral proficiency in the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (levels A1–C2). The majority performed the same or better for linguistic competence compared to strategic and sociolinguistic competence, where strategic competence was the least shown competence. Due to contextual ambiguity, sociolinguistic competence was the most challenging aspect to assess. In addition, there were considerable intra-individual differences for different aspects of oral proficiency. The study provides insight into how different aspects of oral proficiency are demonstrated in learner interactions, and highlights challenges related to teaching and assessment. Important implications include the need for increased awareness in instruction and the development of clear criteria for what and how to assess L2 English oral proficiency to achieve equity.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2026). Digital gaming and young L2 learners. In Farr, Fiona & Murray, Liam (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of language learning and technology. Routledge. ISSN 9780415837873. p. 431–445. doi: 10.4324/9781003412212-38. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This chapter examines digital gaming and young language learners. The focus is mainly on the relationship between playing digital games in English and learning English as a foreign or second (henceforth L2) language. Young learners are defined as children in primary school between the age of five and 12. Whereas the starting age of formal L2 English instruction may vary between countries, due to the status of English as a global language, many young learners already know some English when it is introduced in school and playing digital games may very well be one reason why this is the case. It is well known that children tend to rely heavily on implicit learning mechanisms and it is thus possible that children pick up language through playing digital games. Teachers, then, need to be familiar with the world of their learners, perhaps more now than ever, because several studies have shown a relationship between digital gaming and aspects of L2 proficiency (see below). Thus, it is essential that we study the role of gaming for language learning not only among adult or teenage learners (see Chapters 29 and 30 in this volume), but also among young learners. In addition, artificial intelligence (AI) in games is creating new avenues for L2 learning.

• Peters, Elke; Prophète, Elien; Puimège, Eva & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). Learning English outside of school: Young English language learners’ grammar knowledge and writing skills. Applied Linguistics. ISSN 0142-6001. doi: 10.1093/applin/amag093. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study aims to explore the relationship between young English language learners’ (YELLs) extramural English (EE), grammar knowledge, and writing proficiency in English before the start of formal English instruction. Data were collected from 458 YELLs (aged 11–12) in Flanders, i.e. the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium, by means of a grammaticality judgement test and writing test, a learner questionnaire and a parental questionnaire. The results showed that some participants achieved high scores on the grammaticality judgement and writing test before their first English lesson, but the findings also revealed large individual differences. The participants reported having substantial amounts of EE. Four EE activities emerged as a positive predictor for grammar: Watching TV without subtitles, YouTube, Social media use, and speaking and writing, while Watching television without subtitles, YouTube and Social media also predicted learners’ writing scores. The findings show the potential of EE as an important source of input for the informal development of grammar and writing proficiency in English as a foreign/second language.

• Morgana, Valentina; Costa, Francesca; Sundqvist, Pia & Sylvén, Liss Kerstin (2026). Digital practices in CLIL across Romance- and Germanic-language contexts: a teacher survey with complementary student data. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development (JMMD). ISSN 0143-4632. p. 1–25. doi: 10.1080/01434632.2026.2722151. Full text in Research Archive
• Sandlund, Erica & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). Agreeing, Accounting, and Affiliating: L2 Interactional Competence in High-Scoring L2 English Learners’ Agreement Sequences. Nordic Journal of English Studies (NJES). ISSN 1502-7694. 25(1), p. 9–47. doi: 10.35360/njes.v25i1.63737. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research on what should count as evidence of foreign/second language interactional competence (L2 IC) has grown exponentially, particularly drawing on work in Conversation Analysis (CA) (Hall, Hellerman, and Pekarek Doehler 2011). Recurrent participation in L2 conversation is viewed as key to IC development, and learners gradually master an increasing range of L2-appropriate social actions (Salaberry and Kunitz 2019). We address L2 IC in two educational contexts—Norway and Flanders—where learners’ exposure to English is high but where the starting age of formal instruction differs. We focus on one facet of L2 IC: the interactional management of agreement sequences. Previous research has focused on speakers’ practices for doing disagreement (e.g., Čekaitė 2007), showing that learners deploy more advanced methods for disagreement as their proficiency and L2 participation increases. In this study, which is based on generated speaking test data using pre-set test topics that learners are to discuss, relatively few disagreements were found. However, for high-scoring learners, extended and collaborative agreement sequences revealed various practices for jointly agreeing on a stance on the pre-set topics. From a collection of 24 speaking tests collected in grade 10, a subsample of the four highest-scoring learners in each context (N = 8) and their co-participants was analyzed further with a CA approach. Findings show the learners’ awareness of a preference for agreeing with first assessments (cf. Pomerantz 1984; Sacks 1987), and of the conditional relevance of accounts following expressions of agreement with a test prompt. Participants also show affiliation with each other’s contributions, and for the most part align with prior action in their responses (cf. Steensig 2019). Participants also display competence in drawing on vocal, verbal, and embodied resources in displaying agreement and affiliation.

• Sundqvist, Pia & Sylvén, Liss Kerstin (2026). Conceptualising IDLE Within Primary School English Language Teaching. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning (JCAL). ISSN 0266-4909. 42(4). doi: 10.1002/jcal.70276. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Informal digital learning of English (IDLE) is one of many concepts used in a relatively new field of research. Conceptually, it is essential to situate IDLE in a broader theoretical frame. Thus, this paper discusses concepts and frameworks that have helped shape and move the field forward, including (a) language learning and teaching beyond the classroom (LLTBC); (b) Benson's definition of LLTBC focusing on four dimensions (location, formality, pedagogy, locus of control); (c) extramural English (EE); (d) online learning of English (OILE); and (e) the focal concept of the study, IDLE. Objectives The aim of this conceptual study is to advance our understanding of IDLE within the context of primary school English language teaching (ELT) by examining IDLE as a concept in relation to young learners of English as a foreign/second language (L2 English) and to present an integrated conceptual framework. Methods The focus is on learners in primary school, including the pre‐primary years (ages 2–11/12). The theoretical foundation is sociocultural and usage‐based theories and ecological and affordance perspectives. Results and Conclusions The study argues that IDLE is an individual difference variable that must be considered in research measuring L2 learning or development. In addition to the proposed conceptual framework, the study points to avenues for future research, discusses challenges and opportunities associated with integrating IDLE into ELT in classroom settings and curricula, and suggests first steps for this type of integration.

• Kim, Taehyeong; Larsson, Tove; Kaatari, Henrik; Wang, Ying & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). Introducing and Evaluating a Measure of Lexical Diversity Across Word Classes. TESOL Quarterly. ISSN 0039-8322. doi: 10.1002/tesq.70154. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Lexical diversity (LD) has been shown to be a strong predictor of second language (L2) proficiency. However, most current indices combine all word classes into a single measure and thus only capture the broadest patterns of lexical variation. In addition, researchers interested in examining usage patterns across word classes currently lack access to measures of LD that are both more linguistically interpretable and robust to text length. In response to these issues, this paper introduces a methodology for examining part-of-speech (POS)-specific LD indices (e.g., verb and noun diversity) that apply the moving-average type-token ratio (MATTR), a measure validated for its stability across text lengths and reliability in shorter texts. We also evaluate these measures by comparing them to traditional, so-called omnibus LD measures for interpreting L2 corpus data. The results show that examining LD within different parts of speech can help researchers disentangle the broader developmental trend observed with omnibus measures. These findings highlight how POS-specific LD provides more linguistically interpretable description of L2 lexical development, thus complementing traditional omnibus measures.

• Sundqvist, Pia & Sandlund, Erica (2026). Extramural English and social interaction: Examining L2 speaking and interactional competence in high-input contexts. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics. ISSN 0019-0829. doi: 10.1075/itl.25024.sun. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research shows that adolescents learn English as a foreign/second language (L2) extramurally, but few studies have explored the connection between extramural English (EE), speaking, and interactional competence (IC). This exploratory mixed-methods study investigates 21 10th-grade L2 English learners in Norway and Flanders who answered an EE questionnaire and participated in a video-recorded speaking test (National English Speaking Test, NEST). They were assessed on speaking and IC. Results showed a slight significant correlation between total EE and NEST scores ( r s  = .462, p  = .047), a strong correlation between the factor “EE Social Interaction” and NEST scores ( r s  = .696, p  < .001), but no correlations with the IC-score. However, close analyses (Conversation Analysis) of recorded interaction data indicated an EE — IC relation in terms of displayed competencies.

• Kim, Taehyeong; Larsson, Tove; Kaatari, Henrik; Wang, Ying & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). The effects of extramural English reading on phraseology in L2 writing: A key phrase frames approach. System: An International Journal of Educational Technology and Applied Linguistics. ISSN 0346-251X. 136. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2025.103880. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Foreign/second language (L2) learners worldwide are increasingly exposed to English outside the classroom through self-initiated, extramural English (EE) activities. Among the diverse types of EE activities, reading stands out as a particularly important activity for students. In particular, it has been shown to foster L2 learner's phraseological knowledge (e.g., phrasal verbs and collocations). This study explores whether the effects of EE reading extend to longer multi-word units by examining discontinuous four-word sequences with a variable slot occupied by fillers (e.g., the most ∗ aspect), known as phrase frames (p-frames). The present study used the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC), which comprises L2 English texts written by junior and senior high school students, to extract texts from learners who read in English every week vs. those who do not. Subsequently, we used a novel method for identifying p-frames that are key to the reading and non-reading groups, respectively, and examined the variability of fillers and structural characteristics of the identified key p-frames. The results show that key p-frames of the reading group are characterized by higher variability than those in the non-reading group. There were very limited differences between the groups at the level of the structural categories, but specifically for the function word frames, the reading group are characterized by p-frames that involved a noun phrase with a post-nominal modifier (e.g., the ∗ of a). In contrast, the non-reading group included more embedded clauses in their texts. Pedagogical implications for the role of language exposure through self-initiated reading are discussed.

• Schurz, Alexandra & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Considering extramural English in class: Exploring teachers’ activity ideas in secondary school classrooms in four countries. Applied Linguistics. ISSN 0142-6001. doi: 10.1093/applin/amaf078. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Extramural English (EE), referring to English-mediated leisure activities, has become a core part of English learning in many contexts. This prompts the need to explore how informal learning can best interact with English language teaching (ELT). To investigate possible ways of linking EE and ELT, we asked secondary school teachers in Austria, Finland, France, and Sweden in a survey to illustrate an activity they would do with students making extensive use of EE. We recruited teachers through convenience sampling and received responses from 239 teachers. Swedish teachers most frequently illustrated activities, followed by Austrian, Finnish, and French teachers. Austrian and French teachers mostly referred to activities based on authentic (i.e. non-pedagogic) material. Contrarily, Finnish and Swedish teachers more often illustrated activities raising learners’ awareness of register differences. The findings point to possible contextual variation in how EE is considered in instruction, potentially influenced by political and sociocultural factors, such as learners’ average EE use and dominant instructional priorities. The findings can inform stakeholders seeking to support teachers in effectively connecting classroom instruction with learners’ EE.

• Rindal, Ulrikke & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Exploring six-year-olds’ L2 English digital learning in the home. ELT Journal. ISSN 0951-0893. doi: 10.1093/elt/ccaf039. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Young L2 English learners constitute an underresearched group in the fields of L2 acquisition and ELT. However, emerging research has shown that young children learn English informally, even prior to formal instruction in school, often influenced by their engagement in English-language media, such as watching YouTube and gaming. This study adopts an ethnographic perspective to explore how three six-year-olds in Norway engage with English-language media platforms and games in their homes, and how such engagement influences L2 learning. The study’s focus is on methodological and ethical issues when researching children in private spheres. Data were collected through a show-and-tell procedure which demanded thorough ethnographic groundwork and considerable researcher flexibility. The findings showed that all three homes offered affordances for L2 learning. We argue that in order to capture socially situated engagement with digital technologies, it was crucial to collect data in the actual socially situated practice in the young learners’ homes.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Possibilities and ethical and legal challenges in child-centered L2 research. In Butler, Yuko Goto & Pinter, Annamaria (Ed.), Child-centered Approaches to Applied Linguistic Research. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISSN 9789027244468. p. 149–168. doi: 10.1075/rmal.13.09sun. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (1989) emphasizes children’s voice and rights. In child-centered research, it is important that participants understand what their participation entails and what their roles are, and that researchers consider children’s developmental characteristics. In this chapter, I reflect on my experiences of having conducted child-centered research on foreign/second language English in Scandinavia. The aim is to discuss possibilities but also ethical and legal challenges in this line of research, including adherence to international regulations, here, the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) in the European Union. While it is excellent that regulations protect minors as research participants, an unwanted consequence of them can be that researchers refrain from relevant studies that potentially could benefit children. After an introduction, there is a section where I align myself with some interpretations of child-centered research, followed by a section in which three areas of research are addressed: extramural English, foreign/second language (L2) oral proficiency, and classroom-based research on L2 teaching, learning, and interaction. I then discuss my position further with reference to my own and other’s research, both in the past and more recently. The chapter closes with implications for future research.

• Uztosun, Mehmet Sercan & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Extramural English in Türkiye: Scale Development, Learner Engagement and L2 English Proficiency. Sage Open. 15(4), p. 1–14. doi: 10.1177/21582440251396680. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Extramural English (EE) has been linked to foreign/second language (L2) English proficiency, but most research studies rely on broad questionnaires, limiting the scope of robust analyses. Although validated EE scales exist in several contexts, none of them have been developed for Türkiye, where EE research remains scarce. This article addresses these gaps through two studies: (1) the development and validation of a Turkish EE scale, and (2) an examination of its predictive value for L2 English proficiency. Study 1 involved 718 university students and followed established procedures for scale development and validation, including exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses, test-retest reliability and known-groups validity. Study 2 applied the scale to a separate sample of 59 university students, whose L2 English proficiency was measured by an institutional exam assessing speaking, writing and reading/listening. Regression and correlation analyses were conducted to explore the links between EE engagement and proficiency outcomes. The final 47-item Turkish EE scale comprises nine factors: Digital Creativity , Gaming , Music , Social Interaction , Reading and Listening , Internalised , Writing , Social Reading and Listening , and Googling and Viewing . Findings showed that EE engagement, especially Internalised EE, significantly predicted L2 English proficiency, particularly speaking. These findings demonstrate that EE is a meaningful predictor of language outcomes in the Turkish context and that specific EE activities contribute more strongly than others. The validated scale provides a reliable tool for future EE research in Türkiye. Based on the results of Study 2, we discuss pedagogical implications for English teaching in Türkiye that explicitly address EE engagement.

• Nicolaou, Anna; Sauro, Shannon; Gudmundsdottir, Greta Björk & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Critical Virtual Exchange to address teachers’ needs in times of conflict. Journal of Virtual Exchange. 8, p. 54–66. doi: 10.21827/jve.8.42314. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Critical world events, such as wars and pandemics, have always impacted the field of education. Across the globe, educational contexts have been confronted with challenges emerging from these events, thereby necessitating teachers to respond to the specific needs that arise in disrupted educational settings. Due to its intercultural nature, Virtual Exchange (VE) is a promising practice for contexts where new intercultural spaces are created in educational settings affected by disruption or conflict. In addition, its computer-mediated configuration allows participants from diverse geographic contexts to collaborate on shared goals synchronously or asynchronously. This practice report presents the outcomes of a “Critical Virtual Exchange” project, which brought together teachers from across Europe who were working with or preparing to work with Ukrainian students displaced by the war. By shedding light on the potential of VE to respond to the challenges faced by teachers during periods of educational disruption, this study contributes to leveraging VE as a practice to address critical pedagogical goals in crisis-affected contexts and establish virtual support communities.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Learner variables in DGBLLT. In McCallum, Lee & Tafazoli, Dara (Ed.), The Palgrave encyclopedia of computer-assisted language learning. Palgrave Macmillan. ISSN 9783031514470. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-51447-0_130-1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Learner variables are individual characteristics of learners of a foreign/second language (L2), also known as individual difference (ID) variables (see, e.g., Skehan, 1989). Learner (or ID) variables that are commonly used in L2 research are, for example, age, anxiety, aptitude, attitude, beliefs, cognitive abilities, gender, language background (first language, L1), learning strategies, learning styles, motivation, personality traits (e.g., extroversion/introversion), proficiency, and willingness to communicate. In digital game-based language learning and teaching (DGBLLT), an area of research within the broad field of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) research, some of these learner variables have been more researched than others, such as the effects of game-based teaching on motivation (see, e.g., Dehghanzadeh et al., 2021). Sometimes these variables have been researched from the perspective of the player-learner (Reinhardt, 2017). In CALL research, writing is clearly most researched when it comes to L2 proficiency variables (Mohsen et al., 2023). Further, in DGBLLT as well as in CALL research, it has been important to consider learners’ informal L2 learning (Sundqvist, In press), which comprises access to technology, that is, a socio-economic status (SES) variable – yet another relevant learner variable that may influence L2 learning processes and outcomes (the digital divide, Ortega, 2017). In this entry, the concept of learner variable and some associated concepts/variables will be defined, backed up by DGBLLT research in which the variables have been investigated. The findings from such research will be summed up, including an attempt to also identify trends related to learner variables in DGBLLT: what has been researched to date and where the gaps are. Suggestions for future research will be provided.

• Uztosun, Mehmet Sercan & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Extramural English activities and their relationship with L2 English proficiency at a Turkish university context. The Literacy Trek. 11(1), p. 56–78. doi: https:/dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/literacytrek/article/1691753?issue_id=93418. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Although Extramural English (EE) has been widely studied in various international contexts, research in Türkiye remains limited, particularly regarding the relationship between EE engagement and English language proficiency. This study aims to address this gap by profiling Turkish university students’ engagement in EE activities and examining whether the frequency of such engagement correlates with English proficiency. Data were collected from 59 English-major students (average age = 19.74) at a university in Istanbul. Participants reported their weekly engagement in six EE activities via a questionnaire and submitted scores from an English proficiency exam comprising reading/listening, speaking, and writing components. Descriptive statistics and Spearman’s rank-order correlations were used for analysis. Results showed that participants spent the most time on EE listening and EE watching activities. Four EE activities—listening, watching, spoken interaction, and writing—correlated positively with overall proficiency and reading/listening scores. EE reading/listening, and writing were also related to speaking scores, but no EE activity correlated with writing proficiency. EE gaming showed no significant relationships with any proficiency measure. While the popularity of EE activities in Türkiye aligns with international findings, the skill-specific correlations show a more complex picture. Implications for language learning and directions for future research are discussed.

• Lai, Chun & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Research agenda: Synergizing in-class and out-of-class language learning with technology. Language Teaching. ISSN 0261-4448. 59(1), p. 60–81. doi: 10.1017/S026144482500014X. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The prevalence of digital technologies, augmented by the emergence of generative AI, expands opportunities for language learning and use, empowers new modes of learning, and blurs the boundaries of in-class and out-of-class language learning. The language education community is challenged to reconceptualize the paradigm of language learning and utilize the affordances of technologies to synergize in-class and out-ofclass language learning. To achieve this, in-depth understanding ofin-class learning and out-of-class digital experiences in relation to one another is needed to informcurriculum and pedagogy conceptualization and implementation. With this aim in mind, we put forth a research agenda around six research themes. We hope that this Thinking Allowed piece can stimulate and guide systematic research efforts towards unleashing the potential of technologies to synergize in-class and out-of-class language learning and create holistic and empowering learning experiences for language learners.

• Sundqvist, Pia; Gyllstad, Henrik; Källkvist, Marie & Sandlund, Erica (2025). Teachers’ reported beliefs and practices about multilingualism: A questionnaire study among secondary-school L2 English teachers in Sweden. International Journal of Multilingualism. ISSN 1479-0718. doi: 10.1080/14790718.2025.2470466. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  An increasingly globalised world has led to great language diversity in institutional settings. Sweden is no exception; 3 of 10 students in compulsory school have a migrant background. Increased diversity may result in challenges, e.g. knowing how to balance the use of the target language with other languages represented among the students to facilitate learning and interaction. As educational policy documents for Swedish schools offer little guidance, teachers of English as a foreign/second language (L2) are left to their own devices regarding what language(s) to draw on in instruction. With the aim of developing an empirical knowledge base about teacher beliefs and practices in multilingual L2 English classrooms in Sweden, a web-based questionnaire was distributed to a stratified random sample representative of secondary-school teachers (N = 139). The questionnaire was designed to target six salient constructs related to multilingual teaching/learning conditions. Quantitative data analyses revealed that although multilingualism is perceived as a resource, there was greater variation in teachers’ perceptions of the role of students’ L1s in learning and teaching, and whether to exclusively use English when teaching. Furthermore, the participants strongly support the Swedish policy of offering mother-tongue instruction at school, which has been in place over the past five decades.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2025). A growth language learning mindset in the third age: A case study of an octogenarian. In Leis, Adrian; Haukås, Åsta; Lou, Nigel Manrou & Nakamura, Sashiko (Ed.), Mindsets in language education. Multilingual Matters. ISSN 9781800418318. p. 92–109. doi: 10.21832/9781800418325-010. Full text in Research Archive
• Gyllstad, Henrik; Sundqvist, Pia; Peters, Elke; Rindal, Ulrikke; Skar, Gustaf Bernhard Uno & Ulfat, Nasrin (2025). Young learners’ receptive L2 English vocabulary knowledge in relation to extramural English exposure at the onset of formal instruction in Norway. International Review of Applied Linguistics in Language Teaching. ISSN 0019-042X. doi: 10.1515/iral-2024-0289. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2024). Extramural English as an individual difference variable in L2 research: Methodology matters. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics. ISSN 0267-1905. p. 1–13. doi: 10.1017/S0267190524000072. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In light of findings from research on informal foreign/second language (L2) learning, with a focus on English as a target language and using the concept of extramural English (EE), this position paper argues that learners’ engagement in EE (through activities such as watching television or films or playing digital games) constitutes an important individual difference (ID) variable that needs to be included in studies that aim to measure L2 English proficiency or development. In addition, it is suggested that if EE as an ID variable is left out in such studies in the future, the rationale for exclusion should be clearly stated. This position paper also discusses research instruments and methods used in this area of research, the benefits and drawbacks of different methods, and identifies research gaps and under-researched learner groups. Further, it is argued that in some contexts, EE has replaced classroom activities as the starting point for and foundation of learning English.

• Sundqvist, Pia & Nilsson, Rickard (2024). Integrating commercial-off-the-shelf games in L2 English vocabulary instruction. In Lee, Ju Seong; Zou, Di & Gu, Michelle Mingyue (Ed.), Technology and English language teaching in a changing world: A practical guide for teachers and teacher educators. Palgrave Macmillan. ISSN 9783031515422. p. 3–15. doi: 10.1007/978-3-031-51540-8_1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research has shown that playing commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) games can have a positive influence on L2 English vocabulary learning. COTS games are commercially available digital games, either for computer or console, which are designed for entertainment (Reinhardt, Gameful second and foreign language teaching and learning: Theory, research, and practice. Palgrave Macmillan/Springer International Publishing, 2019). Thus, such games constitute a resource for vocabulary learning, but one that appears largely unexplored in the field. In this chapter, we focus on how secondary-school teachers can implement COTS games in English language teaching by drawing on students’ extramural experiences of gaming while using English for the purpose of intentional vocabulary learning for all—gamers and non-gamers alike. We report on two projects carried out in Sweden among three groups of students at three different levels (ages 13–16) who gave oral presentations about games. In this chapter we describe in detail both projects, from start to finish, and reflect on the outcomes.

• Källkvist, Marie; Sandlund, Erica; Sundqvist, Pia & Gyllstad, Henrik (2024). TRANSLANGUAGING IN LOWER-SECONDARY MULTILINGUAL EFL CLASSROOMS: PRACTICES AND BELIEFS AMONG EXPERIENCED TEACHERS IN SWEDEN. The European Journal of Applied Linguistics and TEFL. ISSN 2192-1032. 13(1), p. 23–44. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & O'Dowd, Robert (2024). The VALIANT model of Virtual Exchange. In O'Dowd, Robert & Vinagre, Margarita (Ed.), Virtual innovation and support networks: Exploring the impact of virtual exchange in teacher education. Peter Lang Publishing Group. ISSN 9783034349239. p. 25–43. doi: 10.3726/b21769. Full text in Research Archive
• Vinagre, Margarita; Nicolaou, Anna; Sauro, Shannon; Sundqvist, Pia & Rogaten, Jekaterina (2024). Impact of Virtual Exchange on teachers’ and student teachers’ digital collaboration skills. In O'Dowd, Robert & Vinagre, Margarita (Ed.), Virtual innovation and support networks: Exploring the impact of virtual exchange in teacher education. Peter Lang Publishing Group. ISSN 9783034349239. p. 113–124. doi: 10.3726/b21769. Full text in Research Archive
• Källkvist, Marie; Gyllstad, Henrik; Sandlund, Erica & Sundqvist, Pia (2023). Reciprocity and challenge in researcher-student collaborative labour in a multilingual secondary school. In Ericson, Gudrun; Bardel, Camilla & Little, David (Ed.), Collaborative research in language education. De Gruyter Mouton. ISSN 9780230272439. p. 59–70. doi: 10.1515/9783110787719-005. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This chapter focuses on challenge and reciprocity in researcher–student collaborative labour (Zigo 2001) in a large multilingual secondary school in Sweden. The school was recruited for a larger longitudinal study of classroom language policy. For the purposes of the present chapter, we analysed ethnographic data to shed light on the well-known challenge of recruiting and retaining students to participate in longitudinal research, and on aspects of reciprocity, which was operationalized as benefits that both parties, i.e. students and researchers, needed or desired (Trainor and Bouchard 2013). Results show that of the 43 students who were present in the classrooms studied, 35 (81%) provided written, informed consent to fill in a language-background questionnaire and participate in an interview. Fewer students with low grades consented to participate, but those who did provided data no less rich than that provided by students with top grades. As to reciprocal benefits, the researchers secured the research data needed, but also new knowledge about students’ heritage languages and the multilingual territories they had left prior to settling in Sweden. Another benefit relates to empowerment. The researchers were empowered by learning culturally appropriate terminology to use when communicating about multilingual and multi-ethnic territories; and interview data suggest that students were empowered when positioned as experts on their multilingual repertoires and the language ecology in their prior home territories. Finally, the chapter reveals that researchers’ stance of reciprocity evolved organically over time through their ethnographic engagement in the classrooms.

• Frisén, Liliann Byman; Sandlund, Erica & Sundqvist, Pia (2023). Vad kan en elev som kan prata engelska? Didaktisk transposition av muntlig färdighet i lärares matriser för bedömning av det nationella provet. Utbildning & lärande. ISSN 2001-4554. 17(2), p. 11–38. doi: 10.58714/ul.v17i2.15844. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Swedish students’ oral proficiency in English as a foreign/second language (L2) is tested annually in a part of the English national test entitled Speaking (test construct: oral production and interaction), which students’ own teachers both administer and assess. Despite access to extensive assessment guidelines from the Swedish National Agency for Education, many teachers choose to construct their own scoring rubrics for assessment. In this study, we examine teachers’ professional knowledge about assessment of oral proficiency in L2 English, as it emerges from policy transformation in these teacher-generated rubrics. Data consists of 20 rubrics for assessment of Speaking in years 6 and 9. Rubrics were collected through professional networks and two English-teacher groups on Facebook. Qualitative content analysis was used to analyze teachers’ conceptualizations of the test construct, as well as similarities and differences between conceptualizations. Results showed consensus of what to assess, but not necessarily how, which was particularly salient for interaction. Analysis of policy transformation indicated that when teacher-generated scoring rubrics were used for assessment of Speaking, each criterion was considered separately, making them beneficial for formative feedback. The professional knowledge that emerged is therefore formed by teachers’ dual roles – as examiner and teacher – in the test situation.

• Sundqvist, Pia & Uztosun, Mehmet Sercan (2023). Extramural English in Scandinavia and Asia: Scale Development, Learner Engagement, and Perceived Speaking Ability. TESOL Quarterly. ISSN 0039-8322. 58(4), p. 1638–1665. doi: 10.1002/tesq.3296. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This article comprises two international studies. Study 1 aimed to develop a scale to measure the frequency of learners' voluntary, informal, out-of-school engagement with English, so-called Extramural English (EE) activities. It involved three stages – pilot study, exploratory factor analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis – followed by measuring the test–retest reliability and known-groups validity of the scale. L2 English learners (N = 907; mean age: 17) from Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, and Sweden) and Turkey participated. The analyses led to a 32-item EE Scale that loaded onto eight factors: EE Digital Creativity, Gaming, Internalized, Music, Niche Activities, Reading and Listening, Social Interaction, and Viewing. Study 2, in which the scale was implemented, aimed to explore the frequency of EE activities and examined whether EE predicts learners' perceived speaking ability in different settings. Learners from Scandinavia (N = 197) and Asia (N = 125; China and Turkey) participated. Data analyses showed that both samples engaged most frequently in EE Music, Viewing and Reading and Listening. Ordinal regression analysis revealed that EE predicts perceived speaking ability in both contexts, but differently so. Thus, EE seems to play different roles for learning English in the different settings. Implications are discussed regarding the context-specific nature of EE.

• Kaatari, Henrik; Larsson, Tove; Wang, Ying; Eikhoff, Seda Acikara & Sundqvist, Pia (2023). Exploring the effects of target-language extramural activities on students’ written production. Journal of Second Language Writing. ISSN 1060-3743. 62. doi: 10.1016/j.jslw.2023.101062. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Frequent engagement in English extramural activities (i.e., activities that take place outside the classroom) has been found to have a positive impact on EFL learners’ vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. In the present study, we aim to extend our knowledge of the possible impact of extramural activities into the realm of second-language writing. Specifically, we investigate the relationship among a number of English extramural activities and two aspects of writing development: lexical diversity and noun phrase complexity. The data are drawn from the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC) which includes texts produced by Swedish secondary school students. The corpus also includes information on how many hours per week students (i) engage in conversations in English, (ii) communicate in English while playing computer/video games, (iii) read in English, (iv) spend time on social media with English content, (v) and watch TV shows or movies in English. The results show that reading in English leads to higher frequency of adjectival modification, whereas conversing in English and watching TV programs positively impact lexical diversity. The results of the study have implications for discussions about the role of L2 classroom instruction vis-à-vis learners’ extramural activities.

• Sundqvist, Pia; Sandund, Erica; Källkvist, Marie & Gyllstad, Henrik (2022). Language practices in English classrooms: Guest editors’ introduction to the special issue. Languages. 7(4). doi: 10.3390/languages7040291. Full text in Research Archive
• Källkvist, Marie; Gyllstad, Henrik; Sandlund, Erica & Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Språkpraktiker som didaktiskt kontrakt i skolämnet engelska. In Nordin, Andreas & Uljens, Michael (Ed.), Didaktikens språk: Om skolundervisningens mål, innehåll och form. Gleerups Utbildning AB. ISSN 9789151105482. p. 103–120. Full text in Research Archive
• Källkvist, Marie; Gyllstad, Henrik; Sandlund, Erica & Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Towards an in-depth understanding of English-Swedish translanguaging pedagogy in multilingual EFL classrooms. HumaNetten. 48, p. 138–167. doi: 10.15626/hn.20224807. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This paper focuses on language practices in multilingual English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms in lower-secondary education. Based in the Ethnography of Language Policy, it presents a case study of a lead teacher of EFL and a year-8 class in a large urban multilingual school in Sweden. The study aims to map and understand language practices used in this classroom as being part of a larger sociocultural context, focusing on the perspectives of the teacher and four successively trilingual students who had had between four and eight years of schooling in Sweden. Field notes, lesson observations and interviews revealed that practices can be described as English Mainly + Swedish, referred to here as ‘English-Swedish translanguaging pedagogy’. While English was the base language in lessons, Swedish was used judiciously but consistently, serving different specific purposes. Discourse analysis of ethnographic data showed that the teacher’s practices can be traced to his lived experience and to discourses in policy documents. Student participants expressed positive attitudes to the language practices used, which can be explained by them having developed sufficient command of Swedish in the school domain and being loyal institutional policy document, their teacher and fellow students.

• Reinders, Hayo; Lai, Chun & Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Introduction: Language Learning and Teaching Beyond the Classroom. In Reinders, Hayo; Lai, Chun & Sundqvist, Pia (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of language learning and teaching beyond the classroom. Routledge. ISSN 9781003048169. p. 1–6. doi: 10.4324/9781003048169-1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Out-of-class language learning constitutes an important context for language learning. This introductory chapter explains what we mean by language learning and teaching beyond the classroom (LLTBC), by comparing it with the terminology used in prior literature. We propose LLTBC as the broadest term and the one we adopt in the Handbook. We also lay out the three objectives of our book: to enhance conceptual clarity on issues related to LLTBC, to accumulate the insights into how LLTBC may be shaped by external forces and be supported, and to provide a collection of innovative methods in researching LLTBC.

• Gyllstad, Henrik; Sundqvist, Pia; Sandlund, Erica & Källkvist, Marie (2022). Effects of Word Definitions on Meaning Recall: A Multisite Intervention in Language-Diverse Second Language English Classrooms. Language Learning. ISSN 0023-8333. 73(2), p. 403–444. doi: 10.1111/lang.12527. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Vocabulary experts recommend first language (L1) translation equivalents for establishing form–meaning mappings for new second language (L2) words, especially for lower proficiency learners. Empirical evidence to date speaks in favor of L1 translation equivalents over L2 meaning definitions, but most studies have investigated bi- rather than multilingual learners. In our study, we investigated instructed English vocabulary learning through an intervention study in six language-diverse secondary school English classrooms in Sweden (N = 74) involving three conditions for presentation of word meanings: (a) definitions in the L2 (English), (b) translation equivalents in the shared school and majority language (Swedish), and (c) translation equivalents in the shared school and majority language plus other prior languages among the learners (Swedish and other). Based on overall weighted mean effect sizes and mixed-effects modeling, the results showed that conditions that involved L1 translation equivalents yielded higher scores than did target language definitions in immediate posttests with a small effect size but no differences in delayed posttests.

• Sundqvist, Pia; Waldmann, Christian; Straszer, Boglárka & Egeland, Birgitta Ljung (2022). En skriftserie som sträcker på sig: Introduktion till det första fristående ASLA-numret. In Sundqvist, Pia; Waldmann, Christian; Straszer, Boglárka & Egeland, Birgitta Ljung (Ed.), Språk i skola, på fritid och i arbetsliv: Aktuella arenor för svensk forskning inom tillämpad språkvetenskap [Language in school, leisure time, and working life: Current arenas for Swedish research in applied linguistics]. Association suédoise de linguistique appliquée (ASLA). ISSN 9789187884290. p. 1–14. doi: 10.15626/asla2022.29. Full text in Research Archive
• Källkvist, Marie; Erica, Sandlund; Sundqvist, Pia & Gyllstad, Henrik (2022). Intercultural interaction in the multilingual classroom. In Kecskes, Istvan (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Intercultural Pragmatics. Cambridge University Press. ISSN 9781108884303. p. 836–868. doi: 10.1017/9781108884303.033. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Extramural English in language education. In Mohebbi, Hassan & Coombe, Christine (Ed.), Research questions in language education and applied linguistics: A reference guide. Springer. ISSN 9783030791421. p. 201–205. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-79143-8_37. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Learning across the lifespan: Age, language learning, and technology. In Ziegler, Nicole & González-Lloret, Marta (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition and technology. Routledge. ISSN 9781351117586. p. 343–355. doi: 10.4324/9781351117586-30. Full text in Research Archive
• Schurz, Alexandra & Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Connecting Extramural English with ELT: Teacher Reports from Austria, Finland, France, and Sweden. Applied Linguistics. ISSN 0142-6001. 43(5), p. 934–957. doi: 10.1093/applin/amac013. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Today, we globally observe a sharp increase in learners’ engagement in extramural (out-of-class) English (EE; Sundqvist 2009). This undoubtedly affords new opportunities for, but also challenges to, English language teaching (ELT) and learning. To our knowledge, this study is the first to explore this topic from a cross-national perspective. Upper secondary English teachers (N=534) from Austria, France (‘dubbing countries’), Finland, and Sweden (‘subtitling countries’) answered a web-based survey on their students’ EE practices and the estimated impact on teaching and learning. Results showed that overall EE use appears lower in the dubbing countries, especially France (p < 0.001). The teachers’ estimated effect of EE on different areas of learning overall was also the weakest in France (p < .01). Further, teachers in subtitling countries agreed more strongly with statements about adapting instruction to what is (not) learned extramurally (p < 0.001). As EE use is growing, individual learner needs within a class, such as emerging gaps in learner motivation and/or language knowledge and skills, will increasingly have to be catered to in ELT.

• Frisén, Liliann Byman; Sundqvist, Pia & Sandlund, Erica (2021). Policy in practice: Teachers’ conceptualizations of L2 English oral proficiency as operationalized in high-stakes test assessment. Languages. 6(4). doi: 10.3390/languages6040204. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Assessment of foreign/second language (L2) oral proficiency is known to be complex and influenced by the local context. In Sweden, extensive assessment guidelines for the National English Speaking Test (NEST) are offered to teachers, who act as raters of their own students’ performances on this high-stakes L2 English oral proficiency (OP) test. Despite guidelines, teachers commonly construct their own NEST scoring rubric. The present study aims to unveil teachers-as-raters’ conceptualizations, as these emerge from the self-made scoring rubrics, and possible transformations of policy. Data consist of 20 teacher-generated scoring rubrics used for assessing NEST (years 6 and 9). Rubrics were collected via personal networks and online teacher membership groups. Employing content analysis, data were analysed qualitatively to examine (i) what OP sub-skills were in focus for assessment, (ii) how sub-skills were conceptualized, and (iii) scoring rubric design. Results showed that the content and design of rubrics were heavily influenced by the official assessment guidelines, which led to broad consensus about what to assess—but not about how to assess. Lack of consensus was particularly salient for interactive skills. Analysis of policy transformations revealed that teachers’ self-made templates, in fact, lead to an analytic rather than a holistic assessment practice.

• Sundqvist, Pia; Gyllstad, Henrik; Källkvist, Marie & Sandlund, Erica (2021). Mapping teacher beliefs and practices about multilingualism: The development of the MultiBAP questionnaire. In Juvonen, Päivi & Källkvist, Marie (Ed.), Pedagogical translanguaging – Theoretical, methodological and empirical perspectives. Multilingual Matters. ISSN 9781788927369. p. 56–75. doi: 10.21832/9781788927383-006. Full text in Research Archive
• Sandlund, Erica & Sundqvist, Pia (2021). Rating and reflecting: Displaying rater identities in collegial L2 English oral assessment. In Salaberry, M. Raphael & Burch, Alfred Rue (Ed.), Assessing speaking in context: Expanding the construct and its applications. Multilingual Matters. ISSN 9781788923804. p. 132–161. doi: 10.21832/9781788923828-007. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2020). Sweden and informal language learning. In Dressman, Mark & Sadler, Randall (Ed.), The Handbook of Informal Language Learning. John Wiley & Sons. ISSN 9781119472308. p. 319–332. doi: 10.1002/9781119472384.ch21. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This chapter focuses on informal language learning in Sweden. Sweden has a long tradition of teaching foreign languages in school, but formal language learning is currently in many ways being “challenged” by informal language learning. Research has shown how young people develop aspects of English proficiency thanks to extensive involvement in English‐mediated activities, such as: playing digital games in English, binge‐watching English‐speaking TV series or films, watching YouTube, or reading news via apps or social media. The term extramural English has been suggested for this learner‐initiated, generally voluntary, informal way of learning. While extramural English is very common, extramural Chinese, Japanese, and Korean are on the rise. The chapter begins by describing the case of Sweden, focusing on the current language situation and technological infrastructure, and then provides a survey of informal language learning in this small but linguistically diverse country.

• Sundqvist, Pia; Sandlund, Erica; Skar, Gustaf Bernhard Uno & Tengberg, Michael (2020). Effects of Rater Training on the Assessment of L2 English Oral Proficiency. Nordic Journal of Modern Language Methodology (NJMLM). 8(1), p. 3–29. doi: 10.46364/njmlm.v8i1.605. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The main objective of this study was to examine whether a Rater Identity Development (RID) program would increase interrater reliability and improve calibration of scores against benchmarks in the assessment of second/foreign language English oral proficiency. Eleven primary school teachers-as-raters participated. A pretest–intervention/RID–posttest design was employed and data included 220 assessments of student performances. Two types of rater-reliability analyses were conducted: first, estimates of the intraclass correlation coefficient two-way random effects model, in order to indicate the extent to which raters were consistent in their rankings, and second, a many-facet Rasch measurement analysis, extended through FACETS®, to explore variation regarding systematic differences of rater severity/leniency. Results showed improvement in terms of consistency, presumably as a result of training; simultaneously, the differences in severity became greater. Results suggest that future rater training may draw on central components of RID, such as core concepts in language assessment, individual feedback, and social moderation work.

• Sundqvist, Pia; Sandlund, Erica; Källkvist, Marie; Fredholm, Kent & Dahlberg, Maria (2019). Ömsesidighet i framtidens praktiknära språkklassrumsforskning: ASLA-symposiets panelsamtal med forskare, lärare och elever. In Egeland, Birgitta Ljung; Roberts, Tim; Sundqvist, Pia & Sandlund, Erica (Ed.), Klassrumsforskning och språk(ande): Rapport från ASLA-symposiet i Karlstad, 12–13 april, 2018. Karlstad University Press. ISSN 9789187884276. p. 19–41. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Under ASLA-symposiet hölls för första gången ett panelsamtal om forskningsbehov i språkämnena där lärare, språkforskare och gymnasieelever deltog. I detta kapitel situerar vi idén med panelsamtalet i studier av lärares roll i och för den praktiknära skolforskningen. Vi redogör för några modeller för samverkan mellan lärare och forskare och diskuterar identifierade framgångsfaktorer i praktiknära forskning. Vi redogör också för KIPPS, det samverkansprojekt som möjliggjorde panelsamtalet och den satsning på praktiknära skolforskning som det statliga ULF-avtalet möjliggjort. Vi diskuterar sedan de tankar och idéer som lyftes i panelsamtalet i ljuset av aktionsforskning, lärares forskningsengagemang samt behovet av ömsesidigt kunskapsutbyte och lärande. Slutligen ger vi några förslag till vägar framåt för tillämpad språkvetenskap och praktiknära forskning och ASLA-föreningens möjliga roll i en sådan utveckling.

• Sundqvist, Pia & Sandlund, Erica (2019). Doing versus assessing interactional competence: Contrasting L2 test interaction and teachers’ collaborative grading of a paired speaking test. In Salaberry, Rafael & Kunitz, Silvia (Ed.), Teaching and Testing L2 Interactional Competence. Routledge. ISSN 9781138038998. p. 357–396. doi: 10.4324/9781315177021-14. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2019). Commercial-off-the-shelf games in the digital wild and L2 learner vocabulary. Language Learning & Technology. 23(1), p. 87–113. doi: 10.64152/10125/44674. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The purposes of this study are to examine the relation between playing commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) games in the wild and L2 English vocabulary and to offer comparisons with non-gamers’ vocabulary. Data were collected from two samples of teenage L2 English learners in Sweden, Sample A (N = 1,069) and Sample B (N = 16). Questionnaires and English grades were collected from A and B, productive and receptive vocabulary tests from A, and interviews and essays from B. A quantitative-dominant mixed- methods approach was adopted. Results showed a significant positive correlation between time played and test scores. They also showed that time played was related to types of games played. Multiple regression analysis including time played and types of games as predictor variables and L2 vocabulary as the outcome variable showed that the effect from type disappeared when it was entered into the model, whereas time remained significant. A close examination of 45 words (productive test) revealed significantly higher scores for gamers (compared with non-gamers) at all vocabulary frequency levels, and for particularly difficult words. Overall, findings from Sample B regarding gaming habits and vocabulary (i.e., use of advanced or infrequent words in essays) reflected the results from Sample A, making it possible to conclude that playing COTS games matters for L2 learner vocabulary.

• Sundqvist, Pia; Wikström, Peter; Sandlund, Erica & Nyroos, Lina (2018). The teacher as examiner of L2 oral tests: A challenge to standardization. Language Testing. ISSN 0265-5322. 35(2), p. 217–238. doi: 10.1177/0265532217690782. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The present paper looks at the issue of standardization in L2 oral testing. Whereas external examiners are frequently used globally, some countries opt for test-takers’ own teachers as examiners instead. In the present study, Sweden is used as a case in point, with a focus on the mandatory, high-stakes, summative, ninth-grade national test in English (speaking part). The national test has the typical characteristics of standardized tests and its main objective is to contribute to equity in assessment and grading on a national level. However, using teachers as examiners raises problems for standardization. The aim of this study is to examine teachers’/examiners’ practices and views regarding four aspects of the speaking test – test-taker grouping, recording practices, the actual test occasion, and examiner participation in students’ test interactions – and to discuss findings in relation to issues concerning the normativity and practical feasibility of standardization, taking the perspectives of test-takers, teachers/examiners, and test constructors into account. In order to answer research questions linked to these four aspects of L2 oral testing, self-report survey data from a random sample of teachers (N = 204) and teacher interviews (N = 11) were collected and quantitative data were analyzed using inferential statistics. Survey findings revealed that despite thorough instructions, teacher practices and views vary greatly across all aspects, which was further confirmed by interview data. Three background variables – teacher certification, work experience, gender – were investigated to see whether they could provide explanations. Whereas certification and gender did not contribute significantly to explaining the findings, work experience bore some relevance, but effect sizes were generally small. The study concludes that using teachers as examiners is a well-functioning procedure in terms of assessment for learning, but raises doubts regarding assessment of learning and standardization; a solution for test authorities could be to frame the test as non-standardized.

• Henry, Alastair; Korp, Helena; Sundqvist, Pia & Thorsen, Cecilia (2018). Motivational strategies and the reframing of English: Activity design and challenges for teachers in contexts of extensive extramural encounters. TESOL Quarterly. ISSN 0039-8322. 52(2), p. 247–273. doi: 10.1002/tesq.394. Full text in Research Archive
• Nyroos, Lina; Sandlund, Erica & Sundqvist, Pia (2017). Code-switched repair initiation: The case of Swedish eller in L2 English test interaction. Journal of Pragmatics. ISSN 0378-2166. 120, p. 1–16. doi: 10.1016/j.pragma.2017.08.008. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Despite a long-standing interest in repair practices, much is yet to be learned about participants’ selections of components of the repair operation, and their systematic variation across contexts and languages (Hayashi et al., 2013b, Kitzinger, 2013). The present paper targets the initiation of self-repair through examination of a particular discursive object, the Swedish conjunction eller (‘or’), located in repair-prefacing position in a corpus of 79 second language (L2) oral proficiency tests. In the corpus, eller is systematically produced in Swedish, while surrounding talk is produced in the target language, English. As such, the repair initiations are code-switched (e.g., Auer, 1998b). Building on the recent work on or-prefaced repair initiations in English (Lerner and Kitzinger, 2015), we examine the role of eller-initiated repair (EIR), i.e., repair prefaced by eller, in the context of paired L2 tests. We also contrast EIRs with or-prefaced repair initiations in the same dataset. Findings indicate that EIRs serve to display trouble awareness, which may relate to necessary revisions of both form and content of the talk in English. The ‘other-languageness’ (Gafaranga, 2000) of the momentary code-switch amplifies test-takers’ attention to what needs to be replaced or revised, and indicates to co-participants that self-repair is underway. The practice helps push forward turn transition and pre-empts conclusions about the speaker's stance or linguistic competence, which may be particularly relevant in a language testing context.

• Sandlund, Erica; Sundqvist, Pia & Nyroos, Lina (2016). Research-based professional development workshops for EFL teachers: Focus on oral test interaction and assessment. Nordic Journal of Modern Language Methodology (NJMLM). 4(1), p. 24–48. doi: 10.46364/njmlm.v4i1.295. Full text in Research Archive
• Sylvén, Liss Kerstin & Sundqvist, Pia (2016). Undervisning på och i engelska, Pedagogik för högskolelärare. Gidlunds förlag. ISSN 9789178449378. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Att vara en god högskolelärare och ständigt vilja förbättra sin undervisning är en viktig del av lärarens identitet. Här måste alla inom högskolan ta sitt ansvar. Det gör man genom att synliggöra utbildningsfrågor och undervisningssituationer. Aktiva högskolelärare måste skapa mötesplatser där lärande, innovation och kvalitet diskuteras. Pedagogik för högskolelärare bidrar till utvecklingen av kreativa lärandemiljöer vid landets lärosäten. Bokens innehåll bildar en struktur över högskolepedagogiska insatser för kvalificering av lärare och studenter. Certifierade högskolelärare ska behärska strategier, bedömning, rådgivning, forskning och handledning. Innehållet exemplifierar ämnesövergripande strategier samt visar metoder för att dela god praxis. Ämnesföreträdare, forskare, handledare, doktorander och kursansvariga finner ett intressant innehåll, får goda råd och utvecklar därefter egna tankar. Boken bidrar, kort sagt, till teoribildningen kring kunskapsområdet, stöder de studerandes kunskapsutveckling och stärker lärarens praktik. Urvalet av bidrag ger en bild av högskolepedagogikens bredd och djup. Enskilda kapitel beskriver ämnesområdets komplexitet, konkreta lektionsförslag, studenternas utmaningar och lärarens etisk-moraliska antagande

• Sandlund, Erica & Sundqvist, Pia (2016). Equity in L2 English oral assessment: Criterion-based facts or works of fiction? Nordic Journal of English Studies (NJES). ISSN 1502-7694. 15(2), p. 113–131. doi: 10.35360/njes.365. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  For assessment to be equitable, it is central that teachers/raters perceive and apply grade criteria similarly. However, in assessing L2 oral proficiency in paired tests, raters must grade test-takers individually on a joint interaction performance. With a conversation analytic approach, we examine closely one recording from a 9th-grade national test of L2 English with an aim to uncover some aspects that underpin vastly divergent assessments (as assigned by three raters) of one test-taker. Findings pointing to issues such as moral stance, rater experiences, and the interlocutor effect are discussed in light of equity in L2 oral proficiency testing and assessment.

• Sandlund, Erica; Sundqvist, Pia & Nyroos, Lina (2016). Testing L2 talk: A review of empirical studies on second language oral proficiency testing. Language and Linguistics Compass. 10(1), p. 14–29. doi: 10.1111/lnc3.12174. Full text in Research Archive
• Sylvén, Liss Kerstin & Sundqvist, Pia (2016). Validation of a test measuring young learners’ general L2 English vocabulary knowledge. Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language). 10(1), p. 1–23. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2016). Gaming and young language learners. In Farr, Fiona & Murray, Liam (Ed.), The Routledge handbook of language learning and technology. Routledge. ISSN 9780415837873. p. 446–458. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2015). About a boy: A gamer and L2 English speaker coming into being by use of self-access. Studies in self-access learning. 6(4), p. 352–364. doi: 10.37237/060403. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & Wikström, Peter (2015). Out-of-school digital gameplay and in-school L2 English vocabulary outcomes. System: An International Journal of Educational Technology and Applied Linguistics. ISSN 0346-251X. 51, p. 65–76. doi: 10.1016/j.system.2015.04.001. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & Olin-Scheller, Christina (2015). Engelska på fritiden och engelska i skolan – en omöjlig ekvation? Educare. ISSN 1653-1868. p. 53–72. doi: 10.24834/educare.2015.1.1144. Full text in Research Archive
• Olin-Scheller, Christina & Sundqvist, Pia (2015). Sweden – fertile ground for digital fandoms. Transformative Works and Cultures. 19. doi: 10.3983/twc.2015.0621. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & Sylvén, Liss Kerstin (2014). Language-related computer use: Focus on young L2 English learners in Sweden. ReCALL. ISSN 0958-3440. 26(1), p. 3–20. doi: 10.1017/S0958344013000232. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2013). The SSI Model: Categorization of digital games in EFL studies. The European Journal of Applied Linguistics and TEFL. ISSN 2192-1032. 2(1), p. 89–104. doi: 10.14705/rpnet.2013.000166. Full text in Research Archive
• Sandlund, Erica & Sundqvist, Pia (2013). Diverging task orientations in L2 oral proficiency tests – a conversation analytic approach to participant understandings of pre-set discussion tasks. Nordic Journal of Modern Language Methodology (NJMLM). 2(1). doi: 10.46364/njmlm.v2i1.71. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & Olin-Scheller, Christina (2013). Classroom vs. extramural English: Teachers dealing with demotivation. Language and Linguistics Compass. 7(6), p. 329–338. doi: 10.1111/lnc3.12031. Full text in Research Archive
• Sylvén, Liss Kerstin & Sundqvist, Pia (2012). Similarities between playing World of Warcraft and CLIL. Apples - Journal of Applied Language Studies. 6(2). Full text in Research Archive
• Sylvén, Liss Kerstin & Sundqvist, Pia (2012). Gaming as extramural English L2 learning and L2 proficiency among young learners. ReCALL. ISSN 0958-3440. 24(3), p. 302–321. doi: 10.1017/S095834401200016X. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & Sylvén, Liss Kerstin (2011). Fritidsspråk i femman - framtidens studenter formas. In Ylikiiskilä, Antti & Westman, Maria (Ed.), Språk för framtiden. Rapport från ASLA:s höstsymposium, Falun, 12-13 November, 2010. Language for the future. Papers from the ASLA Symposium in Falun, 12-13 November, 2010.. Swedish Science Press. ISSN 9789187884238. p. 186–198. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2011). A possible path to progress: Out-of-school English language learners in Sweden. In Benson, Phil & Reinders, Hayo (Ed.), Beyond the language classroom. Palgrave Macmillan. ISSN 9780230272439. p. 106–118. doi: 10.1057/9780230306790_9. Full text in Research Archive
• Sandlund, Erica & Sundqvist, Pia (2011). Managing task-related trouble in L2 oral proficiency tests: Contrasting interaction data and rater assessment. Novitas-ROYAL (Research on Youth and Language). 5(1), p. 91–120. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2010). Extramural engelska – En möjlig väg till studieframgång. Karlstads universitets Pedagogiska Tidskrift (Kapet). ISSN 1653-4743. p. 94–109. Full text in Research Archive

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• Sundqvist, Pia & Sandlund, Erica (2024). Testing talk: Ways to assess second language oral proficiency. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 9781350066014. 288 p. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia; Sandund, Erica; Källkvist, Marie & Gyllstad, Henrik (2023). Language practices in English classrooms: From primary school to higher education. MDPI. ISBN 9783036559674. 211 p. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia; Waldmann, Christian; Straszer, Boglárka & Egeland, Birgitta Ljung (2022). Språk i skola, på fritid och i arbetsliv: Aktuella arenor för svensk forskning inom tillämpad språkvetenskap [Language in school, leisure time, and working life: Current arenas for Swedish research in applied linguistics]. Association suédoise de linguistique appliquée (ASLA). ISBN 9789187884290. 314 p. Full text in Research Archive
• Reinders, Hayo; Lai, Chun & Sundqvist, Pia (2022). The Routledge handbook of language learning and teaching beyond the classroom. Routledge. ISBN 9781003048169. 441 p. Full text in Research Archive
• Egeland, Birgitta Ljung; Roberts, Tim; Sundqvist, Pia & Sandlund, Erica (2019). Klassrumsforskning och språk(ande): Rapport från ASLA-symposiet i Karlstad, 12–13 april, 2018. Karlstad University Press. ISBN 9789187884276. 341 p. Full text in Research Archive
• Henry, Alastair; Sundqvist, Pia & Thorsen, Cecilia (2019). Motivational Practice: Insights from the Classroom. Studentlitteratur AB. ISBN 9789144118482. 329 p. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & Sylvén, Liss Kerstin (2016). Extramural English in Teaching and Learning: From Theory and Research to Practice. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9781137460479. 298 p. Full text in Research Archive

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• Tove, Larsson,; Henrik, Kaatari,; Ying, Wang,; Taehyeong, Kim, & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). Does self-initiated reading and gaming affect intermediate-level L2 student writers’ grammatical complexity? doi: https:/wp.uni-koblenz.de/icame47/. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In countries like Sweden, middle-school and high-school students are increasingly exposed to English outside the classroom through self-initiated, Extramural English (EE) activities (e.g., gaming, social media). In line with usage-based theories (Ellis et al., 2016), we would expect that the type of EE engagement has an effect on students’ output. While this hypothesis has not been systematically tested in the context of EE, there is some supporting evidence in the literature, in particular for EE gaming and EE reading: EE gaming (which tends to expose students to lexically varied, oral/spoken input) has been shown to positively affect students’ vocabulary size (e.g., Sundqvist & Wikström, 2015), while EE reading (providing written/literate input) is found to positively affect students’ noun phrase complexity (Kaatari et al., 2023). However, most previous research has examined EE activities in isolation, overlooking potential interaction effects from engaging in multiple activities simultaneously. The present study zooms in on grammatical complexity to test the hypothesis that the type of EE input students receive will affect their output, while taking learners’ broader EE profiles into account. Grammatical complexity is defined as the addition of optional structural elements to simple phrases and clauses (Biber et al., 2022). It offers a helpful framework for analyzing possible effects of EE on students’ output in that different groups of complexity features are associated with oral vs. literate registers: ‘Oral’ features (e.g., finite adverbial clauses, verb + that-complement clauses) are more frequent in oral/spoken registers, and ‘literate’ features (e.g., attributive adjectives, prepositional phrases) are associated with literate/written registers (Biber & Larsson, 2025). Using the Swedish Learner English Corpus (Kaatari et al., 2024), we focus specifically on the possible effects of EE gaming and EE reading. We would expect increasing literate/written input through EE reading to lead to more literate/written-like complexity features, following Kaatari et al. (2023). For EE gaming, our analysis will be exploratory, but given the spoken elements of many online games (e.g., Reinhardt, 2019), we expect that more gaming will lead to more oral/spoken-like complexity features. We ask the following research questions: 1. To what extent does the time students spend on EE reading and EE gaming help predict frequency of phrasal vs. clausal complexity features in their writing? 2. Are there differences across profiles (e.g., high reading and high gaming) in students’ use of phrasal vs. clausal complexity features? Linear regression results show that both EE reading and EE gaming have a statistically significant positive effect on phrasal complexity, albeit with limited variance explained by the model (R2: 0.03). No effect of either EE activity was noted for the clausal features. Regarding RQ2, we looked at students whose EE reading/gaming time was in the top/bottom 30th percentile. We saw that the high gaming-high reading group had consistently higher frequencies for phrasal complexity with a low-to-medium effect size (d: .58, .21, .15). No main effects of the profiles were noted for clausal complexity. Partially contrary to our hypothesis, we thus conclude that both EE activities have a positive effect on phrasal complexity.

• Henrik, Kaatari,; Taehyeong, Kim,; Tove, Larsson,; Ying, Wang, & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). Prompt effects on L2 English writing. doi: https:/lin.ufl.edu/aacl-2026/. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia; Sandlund, Erica & Uztosun, Mehmet Sercan (2026). Extramural English social interaction and speaking proficiency. LMS : Lingua. ISSN 0023-6330. p. 14–16. doi: https:/spraklararna.se/lingua-senaste-numret/. Full text in Research Archive
• Larsson, Tove; Kaatari, Henrik; Wang, Ying; Kim, Taehyeong & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). Assessing the impact of self-initiated reading and gaming on intermediate level L2 student writers’ grammatical complexity. Full text in Research Archive
• Hasselgård, Hilde; Llewellyn, Sophie Emma Sian; Kaatari, Henrik & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). Extramural English and vocabulary use: Keywords and collocations in the Norwegian Learner English Corpus. Full text in Research Archive
• Costa, Francesca; Segura, Marta; Morgana, Valentina; Sundqvist, Pia & Sylvén, Liss Kerstin (2026). Influential factors in digital extramural practices of CLIL learners to support bi-/multilingual disciplinary literacies: A pan-European study. doi: https:/eurosla35.fcsh.unl.pt/. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), teaching non-language subjects through a Foreign Language (FL), fosters learners’ FL development for professional and academic purposes, namely bi-/multilingual disciplinary literacies (BMDL; Hüttner et al., 2025). However, CLIL classrooms often face limitations in quality and variety of FL input, raising the importance of out-of-school practices to support and complement CLIL languages (Lázaro-Ibarrola, 2024). Extramural English (EE) refers to intentional and incidental English learning outside classrooms, increasingly accessible through digital tools (Sundqvist, 2024), shaping CLIL learners’ BMDLs (Llinares et al., 2012). Building on current knowledge, this study provides cross-country comparisons on how different profiles of CLIL students across Europe engage in digital EE practices to support their learning. Transnational studies remain scarce, but are highly relevant and since long called for (Sylvén, 2013). This pan-European study poses three questions: (1) What are CLIL students’ EE digital practices? (2) Are there differences between the practices of students in countries with different audiovisual preferences? (3) What are the roles of age and gender? Data were collected from CLIL students in 10 EU-countries as part of the CLILNetLe Cost Action (CA21114) through an online survey. The sample in this study includes 831 students aged 9–18 (Mage=15.02), with 22 different school languages and English as their CLIL language. Findings show that CLIL students believed that engaging in EE digital practices in their CLIL language fostered its development, with social media, online music, and video streaming/sharing being the preferred activities. Students in subtitling countries (n = 253) reported engaging in EE digital activities significantly more often than those in dubbing countries (n = 578). Older students (13–18 years, n = 676) reported engaging more in daily digital activities via mobile phones, while younger ones (9–12 years, n = 159) favored tablets, smartwatches and TVs. Activity preferences were similar in both age groups, but differed by gender: males (n = 312) reported playing games and chatting in online forums, while females (n = 483) preferred social media and video/music streaming. This study offers insights into the interplay between varying linguistic environments, educational practices, and technology use. With digital devices and EE activities being increasingly present in students’ lives, researchers, teacher trainers, and in-service teachers would benefit from finding ways to bridge between BMDL practices and what happens within classroom walls. Hüttner, J., Llinares, A., & Nikula, T. (2025). Conceptualizing bi- and multilingual disciplinary literacies in CLIL: Insights from a European research network. Frontiers in Education, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2025.1540211 Lázaro-Ibarrola, A. (2024) Intensity matters inside and outside primary school: Evidence from high‐CLIL, low‐CLIL, and non‐CLIL learners. TESOL Quarterly, 59(3): 1567–1595. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.3369 Llinares, A., Morton, T., & Whittaker, R. (2012). The roles of language in CLIL. Cambridge University Press. Sundqvist, P. (2024). Extramural English as an individual difference variable in L2 research: Methodology matters. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 44, 79–91. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190524000072 Sylvén, L. K. (2013) CLIL in Sweden – why does it not work? A metaperspective on CLIL across contexts in Europe. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 16(3): 289–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2013.777387

• Källkvist, Marie; Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2026). In search for policy: a systematic literature review of starting age in formal EFL education world-wide. doi: https:/www.umu.se/sprakstudier/forskning/konferenser/sprakets-roll-i-en-utmanande-tid/. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Starting age for publicly funded English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) instruction ranges between 6 and 13 in Europe (Källkvist et al., 2025). World-wide and in Europe, more and more countries start as early as 6–7. Interestingly, this goes against research on student proficiency outcomes; in Europe, studies consistently show that later starters (10–11 years) perform as well as early starters (age 6–7) when leaving compulsory school (Pfenninger & Singleton, 2017). In light of this tension between educational language policy and evidence, we are conducting a systematic literature review of empirical studies examining the effect of starting age of formal EFL teaching world-wide. Like other systematic reviews, we aim to provide a synthesis “of the state of knowledge in a field” (Page et al., 2021, p. 1). Importantly, our systematic review goes beyond studies of EFL proficiency outcomes by also including research that takes a holistic approach (Pfenninger & Singleton, 2017) to EFL teaching and learning, paying attention also to student and teacher perceptions, experiences and beliefs. Relying on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Page et al., 2021), five data bases were searched around the domains of English as a second/foreign language instruction AND education* policy AND start* age OR early start*, resulting in 1,097 records, then reduced to 33 following removals of duplicates and off-topic records. Included studies are empirical, using starting age of EFL formal education as one variable and represent contexts across the globe. In this paper, we address three questions: 1) What geopolitical areas are covered in the research reviewed?, 2) What is the reported starting age in these contexts?, and 3) What are the fin

• Bergström, Denise; Wennlund, Per & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). L2 English teachers’ vocabulary beliefs and reported practices. doi: https:/www.umu.se/sprakstudier/forskning/konferenser/sprakets-roll-i-en-utmanande-tid/. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Vocabulary is a cornerstone of foreign/second language (L2) learning, playing a central role in both language comprehension and production. There is a wealth of research on how learners can be supported in the vocabulary learning process by their teachers, for example by spacing exposures to and inducing elaboration of target words. Such interventions are essential, as vocabulary development should not be left to chance (Schmitt, 2008). However, research in Sweden (Bergström et al., 2022) shows a gap between vocabulary research and what L2 English teachers report that they believe in and do in relation to vocabulary development in their classrooms. To date, vocabulary studies focusing on Swedish teachers’ beliefs have been narrow in scope, but an important observation is that teachers do not approach vocabulary instruction in a systematic manner. Since it has not been possible to generalize existing findings, large-scale studies are needed to enhance knowledge about how English teachers perceive vocabulary development. How they design their teaching is essential for understanding the classroom and students’ vocabulary learning opportunities (see e.g., Newton, 2020). This study investigates how Swedish secondary school English teachers approach vocabulary development. To this end, we designed a questionnaire capturing their beliefs and reported practices on key aspects of vocabulary instruction. The questionnaire was administered to a stratified random sample representative of English teachers working in secondary school (years 7–9) in Sweden (N = 174). The data was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Preliminary results indicate that teachers hold research-informed beliefs about some aspects of vocabulary, such as the importance of repetition. A noteworthy finding is that teachers seem to rely on incidental exposure for their students’ vocabulary development. Furthermore, they report spending little time on explicit vocabulary support, even though they report believing in techniques such as using typographic highlighting to support noticing

• Sundqvist, Pia & Schurz, Alexandra (2026). Undervisningsupplägg i engelska anpassade för det extramurala landskapet. doi: https:/sola.kau.se/cslblog/2026/05/25/undervisningsupplagg-i-engelska-anpassade-for-det-extramurala-landskapet/. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2026). Language Learning in the Digital Wilds. In Chapelle, Carol A. (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics (2nd edition). Wiley Blackwell. ISSN 9781119863892. p. 1–7. doi: 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20879. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract Language learning in the digital wilds takes place outside educational institutions and puts emphasis on the unpredictable and erratic—yet dynamic—character of technologies used in learning, and in particular technologies that are not designed for language learning purposes. Learning in the digital wilds can shortly be defined as learning that occurs in non‐instructionally oriented settings that support social activity and promote learner agency and meaning making. Research on language learning in the digital wilds emerged within the area of computer‐assisted language learning in the broad field of second language acquisition, and in this chapter, the aim is to provide an introduction to this specific phenomenon. With “language learning,” focus is on the learning of any language(s) after early childhood, be it a foreign, second, third (et cetera), or an additional language (L2). First, there is a discussion of different terms used to define digital language learning, followed by a discussion on digital L2 learning in the wilds; that is, there is a focus on the core term: the wild . Then two theoretical models that both address the phenomenon of L2 learning in the digital wilds are shared, since they are models frequently used to explain and illustrate the characteristics of this relatively new way of learning languages. The phenomenon of language learning in the digital wilds has pedagogical implications, which are then discussed in the section Rewilding language education. Finally, the chapter ends with suggestions for future research and some recommended readings.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2026). Extramural Vocabulary Learning. In Chapelle, Carol A. (Eds.), The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics (2nd edition). Wiley Blackwell. ISSN 9781119863892. p. 1–8. doi: 10.1002/9781405198431.wbeal20241. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract Extramural vocabulary learning is about informal learning of foreign or second language (L2) vocabulary outside (Lat. extra ) the walls (Lat. murus ) of the classroom. It is always self‐initiated and encompasses both incidental and intentional learning. Although not a new phenomenon per se, extramural vocabulary learning has gained traction in vocabulary research in the 2000s, and especially so regarding L2 English due to its status as a global language and dominance on the internet. However, extramural vocabulary learning can involve any target language, denoted extramural Ln. This article discusses the key concept extramural Ln and theoretical frameworks used in research and describes different research orientations, materials and methods used, and research findings about the relation between learners' engagement in various extramural Ln activities (such as listening to music or playing video games) and vocabulary learning. Finally, the article addresses some critiques of this line of research. There are also suggestions for future research.

• Kaatari, Henrik; Kim, Taehyeong; Larsson, Tove; Wang, Ying & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). Introducing a framework for measuring prompt dependency, diversity and engagement in L2 writing. doi: https:/www.aaal.org/aaal-2026-conference. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  It is widely acknowledged that different registers use different types of grammatical and lexical complexity features (Biber, 1998; Goulart et al., 2020). Research into second-language (L2) English production has also shown differences in linguistic complexity depending on the prompt or topic used (Johnson, 2017; Yang & Kim, 2020). While we have extensive knowledge of the these effects in isolation, we know less about the extent to which learners rely on the prompt and what might lead them to do so – topics of considerable importance for L2 instruction. In this paper, we introduce a framework for investigating the effect of prompt words on L2 writing. This framework considers (a) prompt dependency (the proportion of prompt words used); (b) the diversity of prompt and non-prompt words; and (c) prompt engagement (the extent to which multiword sequences included in the prompt are manipulated). To illustrate the framework, we use data  from the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC; Kaatari et al., 2024), which comprises texts by Swedish high-school students written on the same prompt. A subset of the texts have been proficiency rated (using the CEFR scale); the corpus also includes metadata about the time students engage in self-initiated, so-called Extramural English (EE; Sundqvist & Wikström, 2015) activities (conversation, gaming, reading, social media and watching). Specifically, we explore to what extent engaging in these EE activities has an effect on prompt dependency, prompt diversity, and prompt engagement. Early results show positive relationships between the time spent on EE and the diversity of both prompt and non-prompt words, but not between EE and prompt dependency. The results also show that engaging in social media use and gaming is associated with lower prompt engagement, which may reflect a certain level of independence and self-efficacy among students with frequent use of these activities in particular.

• Bergström, Denise; Wennlund, Per & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). To teach or not to teach: Secondary school English teachers’ beliefs and practices about vocabulary instruction. LMS : Lingua. ISSN 0023-6330. p. 16–19. doi: https:/spraklararna.se/lingua/. Full text in Research Archive
• Schurz, Alexandra & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). Harnessing Extramural English in the classroom. Yours Truly (Suomen englanninopettajat ry). p. 16–18. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia; Gyllstad, Henrik; Källkvist, Marie; Peters, Elke; Rindal, Ulrikke & Sandlund, Erica [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2025). STAGE English Teacher Day 2025. doi: https:/www.uv.uio.no/ils/english/research/projects/stage/events/seminars/stage-english-teacher-day-2025.html. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2025). STAGE Research Webinar 2025. doi: https:/www.uv.uio.no/ils/english/research/projects/stage/events/seminars/stage-researcher-webinar-2025.html. Full text in Research Archive
• Nylander, Elin; Bergström, Denise; Bergström, Jenny; Dodou, Katherina; Källkvist, Marie & Sundqvist, Pia [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2025). English education scholars Sweden. EESS – a platform for sharing research and discussing its implications. LMS : Lingua. ISSN 0023-6330. p. 21–22. doi: https:/spraklararna.se/lingua/. Full text in Research Archive
• Wang, Ying; Kaatari, Henrik; Larsson, Tove; Kim, Taehyeong & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Phraseological complexity in L2 writing: The role of Extramural English activities. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Phraseological expressions, i.e., multi-word expressions including collocations (e.g., heavy rain, make a decision), play an important role in language acquisition and use (Wray, 2012). While L1 users acquire these expressions through extensive exposure, L2 learners, who traditionally rely on formal instruction, often struggle with phraseology (Granger, 2019). With L2 learners’ increasing exposure to English outside the classroom through self-initiated Extramural English (EE) activities (Sundqvist, 2009), this study investigates the impact of EE on phraseological complexity (diversity and sophistication) in L2 writing, focusing on adjective-noun and verb-noun combinations. The data were extracted from the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC), which comprises argumentative texts written by Swedish secondary school students (years 7-11) and provides information on time spent on five EE activities: reading, watching, conversing, gaming, and social media (Kaatari et al., 2024). Following Vandeweerd et al. (2023), phraseological diversity was measured using moving windows. Given issues identified with commonly-used techniques to assess sophistication (e.g., register mismatches when calculating pointwise mutual information (PMI) from a reference corpus), we relied on comparisons within learner data to assess L2 phraseological sophistication. Multiple regression analyses revealed no significant relationship between any EE activities and phraseological diversity. Regarding phraseological sophistication, two activities involving language output (gaming and conversing) showed significant results. Gaming, in particular, positively influenced the use of infrequent, highly specific, or creative verb-noun pairings, such as enhance understanding, channel anger, and lend (me your) eyeballs, and reduced reliance on high-frequency, general adjective-noun collocations such as good friend and bad thing. Overall, our findings suggest not only that EE exposure has an impact on L2 phraseology, but also that the type of EE activity and the type of phraseological units matter for the results. References Granger, S. (2019). Formulaic sequences in learner corpora: Collocations and lexical bundles. In Siyanova-Chanturia, A., & Pellicer-Sanchez, A. (eds.) Understanding formulaic language: A second language acquisition perspective, pp. 228–247. Routledge. Kaatari, H., Wang, Y., & Larsson, T. (2024). Introducing the Swedish Learner English Corpus: A corpus that enables investigations of the impact of extramural activities on L2 writing. Corpora 19 (1). Paquot, M. (2019). The phraseological dimension in interlanguage complexity research. Second Language Research, 35, 121–145. Sundqvist, P. (2009). Extramural English matters: Out-of-school English and its impact on Swedish ninth graders’ oral proficiency and vocabulary. PhD, Karlstad University Studies 2009: 55. Karlstad. Vandeweerd, N., Housen, A., & Paquot, M. (2023). Comparing the longitudinal development of phraseological complexity across oral and written tasks. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 45, 787–811. Wray, A. (2012). What do we (think we) know about formulaic language? An evaluation of the current state of play. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 32: 231–254.

• Rindal, Ulrikke & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Affordances for informal L2 learning in the home: Emotion and engagement with English amongst 6-year-olds. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research has shown that self-initiated engagement with English outside school – extramural English (EE) – is related to the development of foreign/second language (L2) English proficiency (Sundqvist, 2009). Since learners do activities they enjoy while using their L2, EE reflects both emotional and cognitive engagement (Sundqvist & Uztosun, 2023). However, limited research has explored young learners using digital technologies in their L2. This paper presents a study exploring EE engagement among three 6-year-olds (1st-graders) through informal interviews with artefacts in combination with observations in the home (Coupland & Creese, 2015). The participants, one with a high score (Bro) and two with medium scores (Celine and Marcus) on a picture vocabulary test, were sampled from the [anonymized] project. Audio recordings of home interviews and field notes were analyzed inductively to explore how engagement with games, YouTube and music created affordances for L2 learning in the home. The results showed how Bro, Celine and Marcus were exposed to English-speaking media and actively engaged with English using digital platforms. Their engagement was characterized by social interaction and shared interests with family members, in homes with generally positive attitudes towards multilingualism and encouragement of English language use. Overall, the results suggest that a combination of positive attitudes and access to technical devices affords incidental L2 English learning in the home. Such kinds of EE engagement will most likely influence learners’ proficiency in different ways, suggesting it might be challenging for teachers to elicit latent competence in the youngest learners. Informal conversations with the participants’ teacher suggested that Bro’s above-average L2 English vocabulary knowledge developed from extensive gaming remained undiscovered in the first months of schooling, while Celine’s music interest and initiated dialogues about everyday topics as well as use of idiomatic expressions might have been more accessible during English lessons.

• Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2025). Starting age and extramural English: Learning English in and outside of school in input-rich settings. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This colloquium aims to advance our understanding of the relation between language input and foreign/second/additional language (L2) acquisition. The colloquium papers discuss mechanisms underlying language learning amongst learners exposed to and who use large amounts of English outside school, but who have different starting ages for formal English instruction. Focus is on learners from Norway and Flanders, two similar regions as to learners’ informal out-of-school English exposure–i.e., extramural English (EE)–but different in starting age. While Norway has an early start for English instruction in grade 1, Flanders starts late in grades 7 or 8. Comparing learners’ EE and English proficiency at three school levels (grades 1, 6, and 10) in both settings affords investigating the role of starting age for formal instruction in “high-EE” contexts, which is a known research gap. After a 5-minute introduction, the colloquium includes four 18-minute paper presentations connected to the theme, each followed by questions from the audience (5 minutes), with a 5-minute break after the third paper. An invited discussant will offer comments on the papers as well as audience contributions, synthesizing the discussion (15 minutes). The colloquium ends with a 3-minute closing. Paper 1 presents a systematic literature review focusing on educational policy on the starting age of L2 English teaching world-wide. Paper 2 is a study on 1st-graders where parents’ reported EE activity for their child significantly affected receptive vocabulary knowledge, as did word frequency; boys scored slightly better than girls, and the top scorers were avid gamers. Paper 3 is a case study based on home interviews with 6-year-olds; it highlights the affordances for informal learning in the home and the role of emotion. Paper 4 compares findings on L2 English vocabulary knowledge among learners in grades 1, 6, and 10 in Norway (early starters) and Flanders (late starters).

• Uztosun, Mehmet Sercan & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Extramural English in the Norwegian upper-secondary school context: Its relationship with English language proficiency. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Effective English teaching as an additional language presents challenges within the Nordic educational system due to large class sizes and limited instructional hours, which can restrict students’ language development. However, informal language learning through activities outside the classroom—such as listening to music, watching videos, and playing video games—can provide additional exposure to English and support language growth (Dressman, 2020). This type of learning, conceptualized as Extramural English (EE) by Sundqvist (2009), encompasses digital and non-digital activities unrelated to formal schooling that help learners develop their English proficiency. While research has shown that EE enhances language learning, few studies have focused on its impact in Norwegian contexts. Using EE as a theoretical framework (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2016), this study seeks to contribute to the Nordic educational system by exploring how EE activities might support English language learning in Norwegian schools. Specifically, the study examines the types of EE activities that upper-secondary students frequently engage in and investigates whether the frequency of these activities correlates with and predicts vocabulary knowledge, reading proficiency, and writing proficiency. The study employed a survey methodology with 109 upper-secondary students (55 female, 49 male, 5 other gender), aged 16 and 17. EE activity frequency was measured using the Extramural English Scale (Sundqvist & Uztosun, 2023), while vocabulary knowledge was assessed using the Vocabulary Levels Test. Reading and writing tests were specifically designed for this research to evaluate students’ proficiency in these areas. Descriptive statistics were used to assess EE frequency, and Pearson’s correlation and regression analyses were conducted to examine relationships between EE frequency and English proficiency. K-means clustering and ANOVA further explored differences in proficiency based on students' EE frequency. Findings revealed a moderate positive correlation between EE frequency and vocabulary test scores, r(103) = 0.44, p < .01, but no significant correlation with reading or writing proficiency. Regression analysis indicated that EE frequency significantly predicted vocabulary knowledge, F(5, 97) = 5.996, p < .01, with an R² value of 0.23, meaning EE explained 23% of the variance in vocabulary levels. ANOVA results supported this finding, showing that students with higher EE frequency scores performed significantly better on the vocabulary test. This research contributes to Nordic educational research by addressing the gap in understanding EE’s role in Norwegian students' language learning. It demonstrates that engaging in EE activities can effectively support vocabulary acquisition, suggesting that encouraging EE activities may be a key strategy for supplementing language instruction within the Nordic educational context. References Dressman, M. (2020). Introduction. In M. Dressman & R. W. Sadler (Eds.), The handbook of informal language learning (pp. 1-12). Wiley/Blackwell. Sundqvist, P. (2009). Extramural English matters: Out-of-school English and its impact on Swedish ninth graders' oral proficiency and vocabulary. Karlstad University. Sundqvist, P., & Sylvén, L. K. (2016). Extramural English in teaching and learning: From theory and research to practice. Springer. Sundqvist, P., & Uztosun, M. S. (2023). Extramural English in Scandinavia and Asia: Scale development, learner engagement, and perceived speaking ability. TESOL Quarterly.

• Kim, Taehyeong; Larsson, Tove; Kaatari, Henrik; Wang, Ying & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). The impact of self-initiated reading activities on L2 learners’ phraseological complexity. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Learners around the globe are increasingly exposed to English outside the classroom through self-initiated, Extramural English (EE) activities (Sundqvist, 2009). Among the few studies that have looked at the effect of EE on L2 writing, Kaatari et al. (2023) found that reading stood out as being particularly important for the development of linguistic complexity, specifically noun phrase complexity. As phrasal (rather than clausal) complexity has been found to be associated with writing rather than speech (Biber et al., 2024), it would seem preferable for L2 writers to develop their phrasal complexity. Building on Kaatari et al. (2023), the present study looks more closely into the effect of EE reading on L2 writing. Specifically, it adopts a usage-based approach to examine whether the effect of reading goes beyond noun phrases and individual words by looking at 4-word multiword units (MWUs). We used the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC; Kaatari et al., 2024), a corpus of L2 high school writing, to identify groups of learners who read in English every week vs. those who do not, and those who converse in English every week vs. those who do not. We conducted a lexical key-feature analysis (Authors, in preparation) to identify MWUs that are key to each group. Following Biber et al. (2004), the MWUs were categorized into dependent clauses, verb-phrase-based, and noun-phrase/prepositional-phrase-based. The findings show that the reading group used more noun-phrase and prepositional-phrase-based MWUs. The conversation group used more verb-phrased-based MWUs, along with MWUs containing personal pronouns, both of which are characteristic of spoken production. It thus seems as if the mode of the EE-input (writing vs. speech) has a clear effect on L2 phraseological complexity in writing. The findings also highlight the importance of taking EE activities into consideration when studying L2 writing development.

• Källkvist, Marie; Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2025). Educational policy on starting age of formal L2 English teaching world-wide: A systematic literature review. Full text in Research Archive
• Kaatari, Henrik; Kim, Taehyeong; Larsson, Tove; Wang, Ying & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Prompt dependency and the effect of Extramural English engagement on learner writing. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & Sylvén, Liss Kerstin (2025). Oral interaction in L2 English LoL play: A case study of Curt and Sven. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  While studies on learning from playing commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) games have started to appear in second and foreign language (L2) teaching and learning research (e.g., Hitosugi, Schmidt, & Kentaro, 2014; Peterson, 2016), to date, few studies have focused on possible informal learning from such gameplay (e.g., Hannibal Jensen, 2017; Hannibal Jensen, 2019; Sundqvist, 2019; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012), and even fewer on conducting linguistic analyses of what happens in oral game interaction (but see Piirainen-Marsh, 2011, on the co-production of interactional competence during extramural gameplay). Sykes (2019) provides a useful theoretical framework for analysing digital game interaction, listing four categories: interaction with, through, around, and about games. Using Sykes’ framework, this study focuses on the oral interaction between Swedish males Curt and Sven (both aged 18; L1 Swedish, L2 English), who are friends and frequently play League of Legends (LoL) together. LoL is a multiplayer COTS-game where players team up with known friends and/or strangers in two teams of five for matches. Grounded in linguistic theory about and previous work on the role of language play (Philp, Oliver, & Mackey, 2008; Victoria, 2019), code-switching in L2 learning (e.g., Auer, 1998; Bhatia & Ritchie, 2016; Curcó, 2005; Wei, 2005), and game interacion (e.g., Reinhardt, 2019; Sykes, 2019), this case study aims to describe how and when the participants use their L1 and L2 while engaged in oral interaction in a multiplayer videogame. Data consist of screen- and audio recordings (in total: 188 minutes) from five LoL-matches. An inductive qualitative approach (Corbin & Strauss, 2008) was employed to analyze data focusing on (i) code-switched vocabulary (CSV), (ii) frequency and (iii) pronunciation of CSV, and (iv) social interaction. Results revealed extensive use of CSV, numerous sequences of language play (e.g., creating new Swedish-English compounds and adopting innovative pronunciation). The analysis of the interaction between Curt and Sven generated examples of three of Sykes’ (2019) categories of game interaction: with, through, and around. In addition, the analysis revealed that “social interation” was very prominent and, therefore, merits to be viewed as a category of its own, rather than as a subcategory of through interaction, as presently in Sykes’ framework. In our presentation, we will present the results and also discuss implications for L2 English teaching and learning.

• Sandlund, Erica & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Methods for doing agreement: High-scoring L2 English learners’ interactional competence in two different educational contexts. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  While the concept of foreign/second language interactional competence (L2 IC) has been in use since the 1980s (e.g., Salaberry & Kunitz, 2019; Young, 1999), empirical research on what should count as evidence of L2 IC has grown exponentially in recent years, particularly drawing on work in Conversation Analysis (CA) (Hall et al., 2011; Sacks et al., 1974). In this line of research, it is argued that recurrent participation in L2 conversation is key to the development of L2 IC, in which learners gradually acquire the ability to accomplish an increasing variety of L2-appropriate social actions (Salaberry & Kunitz, 2019). In this presentation, we are interested in the relationship between L2 IC on the one hand, and the role of formal and informal learning on the other. Comparing Norway and Flanders, two contexts where learners’ exposure to English outside of school is high but where the starting age of formal instruction differs (grade 1 Norway; grade 7 or 8 Flanders), we focus on one facet of L2 IC: the interactional management of disagreement (see, e.g., Busby, 2024; Puimège & Peters, 2019). Previous research has shown that learners gradually master more advanced methods for accomplishing disagreement as their proficiency and participation in L2 interaction increases (e.g., Čekaitė, 2007; Pekarek Doehler & Pochon-Berger, 2011). Data was collected within the STAGE project, which addresses the relationship between English proficiency on the one hand, and the onset of formal instruction and input from extramural English (Sundqvist, 2024) on the other, across a range of language abilities. For this presentation, we focus on speaking, drawing on a corpus of 24 conversational speaking tests collected in grade 10 in Norway and Flanders using the Swedish National English Speaking Test for grade 9 (NAFS Project, n.d.) as test materials. Learners assigned the highest scores by three individual raters were selected for detailed analysis using CA, with a particular focus on the accomplishment of disagreement, as the ability to express diverging opinions and perspectives is key in the test tasks and assessment criteria employed. In our presentation, we will focus on recurring patterns of doing disagreement, and the observations will be discussed in light of the role of starting age versus extramural English in the two educational contexts.

• Sundqvist, Pia & Uztosun, Mehmet Sercan (2025). Getting a grip on extramural English and proficiency researching L2 English learners in Scandinavia using the Extramural English scale. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Language learning extends beyond classrooms as learners today encounter English daily, which contributes to enhancing proficiency both intentionally and incidentally. This phenomenon, termed Extramural English (EE) by Sundqvist (2009), involves activities like gaming and reading in English. To measure EE engagement, we developed the EE scale (Sundqvist & Uztosun, 2024), which we then implemented in several studies. In this talk, we focus on studies from Scandinavia. We will explore the concept of informal language learning through EE, discuss the development of the EE scale, and share key findings from our research on how EE fosters language proficiency.

• Sundqvist, Pia; Peters, Elke; Skar, Gustaf Bernhard Uno & Gyllstad, Henrik (2025). Study Protocol: STarting AGe and Extramural English: Learning English in and Outside of School in Norway and Flanders (STAGE). doi: 10.30564/fls.v7i8.10412. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This Study Protocol article outlines the aims, theory, and methodology of a 4-year project that primarily seeks to enhance our understanding of the role of starting age and Extramural English. The project unravels the language proficiency of individuals studying English as a foreign or second language (L2) who encounter substantial exposure to English outside school (extramural English, EE), but begin formal English instruction at varying ages. The focus is on two regions: Norway, where formal English education commences early (grade 1, ages 6–7), and Flanders, where it begins later (grades 7 or 8, ages12–14). The overarching project aim is to evaluate whether an early introduction to formal English instruction influences learners'language proficiency and development within contexts abundant in EE exposure, hence the chosen regions. The article is structured into four sections. First, the introduction presents the main objective, provides a theoretical background and previous research, and ends by suggesting that the project will make a substantial and innovative contribution to theories of L2 proficiency, and also contribute with scientific knowledge that will have societal impact. The second section provides an account of the research questions and our predictions, the material and methods, and the measures connected with each of the five research questions that guide the project. Section three offers a discussion that addresses the cross-sectional design and sample size (aim: N = 900), as well as potential limitations. Section four addresses ethics and project dissemination.The article ends with information about funding and acknowledgments.

• Kim, Taehyeong; Larsson, Tove; Kaatari, Henrik; Wang, Ying & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). The effects of Extramural English reading on phraseology in L2 writing: A key phrase frames approach. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Second language (L2) learners worldwide are increasingly exposed to English outside the classroom through self-initiated, Extramural English (EE) activities (Sundqvist, 2009). EE has attracted particular attention from researchers and educators in countries like Sweden, where English is a foreign language and yet well-integrated into daily life. The few studies that have explored the effect of EE on L2 writing have shown that frequent EE engagement leads to the use of more diverse (Kaatari et al., 2023) and less frequent (Olsson, 2016) vocabulary. EE reading stands out as a particularly important activity for students to engage in. Previous studies have demonstrated that EE reading fosters knowledge of recurrent word combinations such as phrasal verbs (Garnier & Schmitt, 2016), collocations (González-Fernández & Schmitt, 2015), and adjective-noun combinations (Wang et al., 2024). Building on these findings, the present study adopts a frequency-based approach to examine whether the effect of language input from EE reading extends beyond word pairs, to longer multi-word units, specifically to discontinuous four-word sequences with a variable slot (e.g., the most * aspect), known as phrase frames (p-frames). The variable slot is filled by words referred to as fillers. Previous studies have shown that high variability among fillers and structural characteristics of p-frames involving phrasal complexity are important indicators of advanced L2 production (e.g., Garner, 2016; Larsson et al., 2022; Tan & Römer, 2022). The present study used the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC; Kaatari et al., 2024), which comprises L2 English junior and senior high school writing, to identify groups of learners who read in English every week versus those who do not. We then applied a novel method taking text dispersion into consideration to identify p-frames that are key to the reading and non-reading groups in reference to each other, respectively. Based on these key p-frames, our study asks: • To what extent do the reading and non-reading groups differ in terms of variability of fillers in key p-frames? • To what extent do the reading and non-reading groups differ in terms of structural characteristics of key p-frames? The results show that key p-frames of the reading group are characterized by high variability, a frequent use of post-nominal modifiers (e.g., the * of a), and lower frequencies of personal pronouns, that is, features associated with informational writing (e.g., Biber, 2006). In contrast, the non-reading group used key p-frames that are characterized by lower variability; they also included more embedded clauses and personal pronouns, that is, features common in more involved production (e.g., Biber, 2006). Pedagogical implications for the development of phraseology in L2 writing are discussed, highlighting the role of language exposure through self-initiated reading.

• Sundqvist, Pia; Gyllstad, Henrik; Skar, Gustaf B. & Peters, Elke (2025). Different starting age – similar exposure to English: Comparing L2 vocabulary knowledge in Norway and Flanders. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  An early start for foreign/second language (L2) English instruction is a global trend. However, the research evidence for the potential benefits of an early start remains inconclusive (see e.g., Baumert et al., 2020; Jaekel et al., 2022), and little is known about its role in settings where learners regularly encounter English outside school (extramural English, EE). This study explores L2 English learners’ vocabulary knowledge in two settings, similarly EE-rich but different regarding starting age: Norway (early, age ~6) and Flanders (late, age ~13–14). The participants were first-, sixth-, and tenth-grade students. Sixth- (n = 411) and tenth-grade (n = 402) participants took the 96-item Picture Vocabulary Size Test (PVST, Anthony & Nation, 2017); first-graders (n = 118) took a shortened, age-appropriate 31-item version. Data were analysed with an item response theory (IRT) two-parameter logistic model, using R-package “mirt” (Chalmers, 2012). The overall reliability was a=.95. Average student scores were set to 0, and negative value thus denoted a value below the mean. The average score for first-graders was -1.25 (SD=0.4), sixth-graders -0.18 (SD=0.61), and tenth-graders 0.46 (SD=0.91). The average score for Norway was 0.02 (SD=0.98), and for Flanders -0.05 (SD=0.98). We estimated regression equations for grades 6 and 10. A multilevel approach indicated substantial clustering effects. The parameter estimate for grade 6 was b=1.05 (p<.001), for grade 10 b=1.71 (S.E.=0.1, p<.001), and for country b=0.05 (p=.580). The estimate for interaction parameters (grade × country) was b=0.12 (p=.701) for grade 6 × Norway and b=0.08 (p=.692) for grade 10 × Norway. The results indicate that starting age (early versus late) was not a significant predictor of vocabulary knowledge. This could imply that formal English instruction does not play a decisive role for L2 English vocabulary size. Instead, students’ exposure to extramural English is likely to be a main contributing factor.

• Peters, Elke; Puimège, Eva; Sundqvist, Pia & Mol, Joke Van (2025). The role of starting age for learning English vocabulary and grammar in input-rich learning settings. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This presentation discusses the role of starting age of formal English instruction vocabulary knowledge and grammar knowledge in two input-rich learning settings, Flanders and Norway. It aims to contribute to the ongoing debate on early foreign/second (L2) instruction. While some studies have found an advantage for early starters (e.g., De Graaff, 2015; Jaekel et al., 2022), others failed to find a (long-term) effect of an early start (e.g., Baumert et al., 2020; Pfenninger & Singleton, 2017). The majority of studies into an early start have been conducted in regions in which L2 learners have little contact with the L2 outside of school (Spain, Switzerland, Germany) (Baumert et al., 2020; Muñoz & Cadierno, 2021; Pfenninger & Singleton, 2017; Schurz & Sundqvist, 2022). However, little is known about the effects of early L2 instruction in input-rich learning settings, where learners engage extensively with English outside of school (e.g., Sweden, Norway, Flanders) (De Wilde et al., 2020; Puimège & Peters, 2019; Sundqvist, 2009). Further, some studies did not focus on the long-term effects of an early start (e.g., De Graaff, 2015; Jaekel et al., 2022). The present study aims to fill this gap by investigating L2 learners’ vocabulary and grammar knowledge in two input-rich learning settings: Flanders and Norway. Unlike Norway, where children receive their first English lessons in primary education (grade 1; age 6-7), children in Flanders start with formal English instruction in grade 7 (age 12–13) or 8 (age 13–14). We recruited participants from Grade 6 (age 11-12) and Grade 10 (age 15-16). The Flemish learners in Grade 6 (n = 434) had had no English instruction at the time of data collection, while the Norwegian learners (n = 200) were in their sixth year of English instruction. In Grade 10, the Flemish learners (n = 183) were in their third or fourth year of instruction, while the Norwegian learners (n = 346) were in their 10th year of English instruction. Data were collected through a questionnaire tapping into learners’ extramural English, the Picture Vocabulary Size Test (PVST, Anthony & Nation, 2017), the Vocabulary Size Test (VST, Nation & Beglar, 2007), and a Grammaticality Judgment Task (Pfenninger, 2014). The VST was only administered to the learners in Grade 10. All data have been collected. The data are currently being analyzed. In line with previous research, we hypothesize that the early starters (Norway) will perform better on the PVST and grammar test in Grade 6, as their English knowledge is the result of both instruction and extramural English. However, our hypothesis is that the early and late starters in Grade 10 will not differ in their vocabulary knowledge, as the late starters (Flanders) will have caught up. Regarding grammar, we expect similar findings with the early starters (Norway) performing better in Grade 6, but no longer in Grade 10. The presentation ends with some implications for L2 English instruction. 99

• Rindal, Ulrikke & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Very young learners’ emotional engagement with extramural English: Affordances for incidental L2 learning in the home. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research shows that self-initiated engagement with English outside school – extramural English (EE) – is related to the development of foreign/second language (L2) English proficiency (Sundqvist, 2011). Increasingly, such engagement occurs through digital devices also for young learners. Since learners use their L2 when involved in digital activities they enjoy, EE reflects positive emotional engagement with technologies, which might potentially influence motivation and willingness to learn English in school (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; Kruk & Pawlak, 2022). However, limited research has explored very young learners using digital technologies in their L2. This study explores EE engagement among three 6-year-olds through informal interviews with digital artefacts in combination with observations in the home (Coupland & Creese, 2015). The participants – Bro, Celine and Marcus – were sampled based on ethnographic groundwork, including conversations with teachers and parents, school interviews, EE questionnaires, and a shortened version of the Picture Vocabulary Size Test, PVST-S (Anthony & Nation, 2017). Data were collected through a show-and-tell procedure, where the 6-year-olds demonstrated their engagement with digital platforms in English, while reflecting on language use and learning. Audio recordings of interviews and field notes were analyzed inductively, and results showed how the very young learners were exposed to English-speaking media and actively engaged with English using digital platforms. Their engagement was characterized by social interaction and shared interests with family members, in homes with generally positive attitudes towards multilingualism and encouragement of using English. The children thus experienced positive emotions through L2 engagement. Overall, the results suggest that a combination of positive attitudes and access to technical devices affords incidental L2 English learning in the home. Such engagement will most likely influence learners’ proficiency differently, suggesting it might be challenging for teachers to elicit latent competence in young learners. Informal conversations with the participants’ teacher suggested that Bro’s above-average vocabulary knowledge (evidenced in a top PVST-S score), developed from extensive gaming, remained undiscovered in the first months of schooling, whereas Celine’s music interest, dialogues about everyday topics, and use of idiomatic English expressions might have been more accessible during lessons. In this presentation, we describe the 6-year-olds’ engagement with digital technologies using rich descriptions and artistic illustrations of situational interactions from the home interviews. For each participant, we discuss how teachers can draw on their EE engagement with technology in classroom contexts to enhance L2 development.

• Wang, Ying; Kaatari, Henrik; Larsson, Tove; Kim, Taehyeong & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Exploring the relationship between L2 learners’ Extramural English activities and phraseological complexity in their written production. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  As posited by usage-based theory, language exposure is key for learning a second/foreign language (L2) (Wulff & Ellis, 2018). While formal instruction in the classroom remains an important source of input, L2 learners in countries like Sweden are increasingly exposed to English outside the classroom through self-initiated, so-called Extramural English (EE) activities (Sundqvist, 2009). This shift has led to growing interest in studying the impact of EE exposure on L2 development, with evidence indicating generally positive effects, particularly on reading, listening, and speaking skills (e.g., Verspoor et al., 2011; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012; De Wilde et al., 2020, 2021). However, the relationship between EE and L2 writing proficiency remains less explored (Kaatari et al., 2023). Similarly, the possible effect of EE exposure on word combinations, or phraseology, is largely unknown (though see Kim et al., 2024). Phraseological expressions, i.e., multi-word expressions including collocations (e.g., heavy rain), lexical bundles (e.g., as a result of ), and formulas (e.g., how’s it going), play an important role in language acquisition and use (Wray, 2012). While first-language (L1) users acquire these expressions through extensive language exposure, L2 learners, who traditionally rely on formal instruction, often struggle with this aspect of language use (Granger, 2019). This study expands our knowledge of the possible effect of EE exposure on word combinations in L2 writing. Specifically, we investigate the relationship between five EE activities and the phraseological complexity (diversity and sophistication), focusing on two types of combinations (adjective-noun and verb-noun) extracted from the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC) (Kaatari et al., 2024). SLEC comprises argumentative texts written by Swedish secondary school students from school years 7-11 and provides information on the time spent on the following EE activities: reading, watching, conversing, gaming, and engaging with social media (see also Kaatari et al., 2023). Following Vandeweerd et al. (2023), phraseological diversity was measured using Moving Average Type-Token Ratio (MATTR). Given issues identified with commonly-used techniques to assess sophistication (e.g., resulting from register mismatches when calculating pointwise mutual information (PMI) scores from a reference corpus; see e.g., Paquot & Hubert, forthcoming), we opted not to use a reference corpus. Instead, we relied on comparisons within the learner data to assess L2 phraseological sophistication. The results indicate that the effectiveness of EE activities varies based on the type of EE activity and the type of phraseological units. Specifically, reading has a positive impact on adjective-noun combinations, while gaming and conversation show distinct patterns related to engagement frequency. These findings highlight the context-dependent nature of phraseology learning and suggest that classroom instruction could benefit from incorporating activities that engage learners in both input and output and balancing creativity and conventionality to enhance phraseological development.

• Kim, Taehyeong; Larsson, Tove; Kaatari, Henrik; Wang, Ying & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). The impact of self-initiated L2 English reading on phraseological variation in student writing. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Second language (L2) learners worldwide are increasingly exposed to English outside the classroom through self-initiated, Extramural English (EE) activities (Sundqvist, 2009). Previous studies have shown that frequent EE engagement leads to more diverse (Kaatari et al., 2023) and less frequent (Olsson, 2016) vocabulary in L2 writing. EE reading stands out as a particularly important activity for students, as it has been shown to foster L2 learner’s knowledge of phrasal verbs (Garnier & Schmitt, 2016), collocations (González-Fernández & Schmitt, 2015), and adjective-noun combinations (Wang et al., 2025). The present study examines whether the effect of EE reading extends to longer multiword units, specifically to phrase frames (p-frames): discontinuous multi-word sequences with a variable slot (e.g., the most * aspect). This study uses an EE survey and the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC; Kaatari et al., 2024), which comprises Swedish junior and senior high school writing, to identify learners who read in English every week and those who do not. Based on a novel method to identify p-frames that are key to the reading and non-reading groups, our study asks: • To what extent do the reading and non-reading groups differ in terms of variability of fillers in key p-frames? • To what extent do the reading and non-reading groups differ in terms of structural characteristics of key p-frames? The results show that the reading group’s key p-frames are characterized by high variability, a frequent use of post-nominal modifiers (e.g., the * of a), and lower frequencies of personal pronouns, i.e., features associated with informational writing (e.g., Biber, 2006). In contrast, the non-reading group use key p-frames that are characterized by lower variability, embedded clauses and personal pronouns, i.e., features common in more involved production (e.g., Biber, 2006). Pedagogical implications for the role of self-initiated reading in L2 writing development are discussed.

• Wang, Ying; Kaatari, Henrik; Larsson, Tove; Kim, Taehyeong & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). The impact of Extramural English activities on phraseological complexity in L2 writing. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Phraseological expressions, i.e., multi-word expressions including collocations (e.g., heavy rain, make a decision), play an important role in language acquisition and use (Wray, 2012). While L1 users acquire these expressions through extensive input, L2 learners, who traditionally rely more on formal instruction, often struggle with phraseology (Granger, 2019). However, in many countries, L2 learners are increasingly exposed to English outside the classroom through self-initiated Extramural English (EE) activities (Sundqvist, 2009). This study investigates the following research questions: 1) To what extent are there differences based on learners’ engagement (vs. non-engagement) with five EE activities in terms of phraseological complexity of adjective-noun and verb-noun combinations? 2) How much does the impact of time spent differ across the activities? The data were extracted from the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC), which comprises argumentative texts written by Swedish secondary school students (years 7–11) and provides information on time spent on five EE activities: reading, watching, conversing, gaming, and social media (Kaatari et al., 2024). Following Vandeweerd et al. (2023), phraseological diversity was measured using moving windows. Given issues identified with commonly-used techniques to assess sophistication (e.g., register mismatches when calculating pointwise mutual information (PMI) from a reference corpus, Paquot & Hubert, 2025), we relied on comparisons within learner data to assess L2 phraseological sophistication. The results indicate that the effectiveness of EE activities varies based on the type of EE activity and the typeof phraseological units. Specifically, reading has a positive impact on adjective-noun combinations, while gaming and conversation show distinct patterns related to the amount of time students spend on these activities. These findings highlight the context-dependent nature of phraseology learning and suggest that classroom instruction could benefit from incorporating activities that engage learners in both input and outputand balancing creativity and conventionality to enhance phraseological development.

• Sundqvist, Pia & Sandlund, Erica (2025). Examining L2 speaking and interactional competence in high-input contexts. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research shows that many young people learn English as a foreign/second language (L2) not only in the classroom but also extramurally, when engaged in activities such as watching videos and playing digital games (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2016). While several studies reveal relations between such extramural English engagement and, e.g., vocabulary knowledge and listening and reading skills, and point to the importance of English in learners’ everyday lives (e.g., De Wilde et al., 2020; Puimège & Peters, 2019), to date, few studies have explored the connection between EE and speaking. To address this gap, this study investigates tenth-grade (age 15–16) L2 English learners who answered an EE questionnaire and participated in a small-group, video-recorded speaking test as part of the STAGE project in Norway and Flanders (Belgium), two input-rich contexts as regards English. For this study, we sampled participants who scored high on a questionnaire-factor called “EE Social Interaction”. Three raters assessed their speaking proficiency holistically and independently using a 9-point scale, and two experts on L2 interactional competence (L2 IC, e.g., Salaberry & Kunitz, 2019) provided ratings informed by conversation analysis (Sidnell & Stivers, 2013) specifically focusing on test-takers’ IC. The first research question addresses the correlation between EE and speaking proficiency, and the second the correlation between EE and L2 IC. Analysis is ongoing, using inferential statistics, assessment data, and the CA-informed ratings. Preliminary findings indicate a positive relation between EE and speaking (RQ1) and interactional competence (RQ2). In this workshop, we will present the study and its results, and discuss pedagogical implications. References De Wilde, V., Brysbaert, M., & Eyckmans, J. (2020). Learning English through out-of-scho.Which levels of language proficiency are attained and which types of input are important? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(1), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918001062 Puimège, E., & Peters, E. (2019). Learners' English vocabulary knowledge prior to formal instruction: The role of learner-related and word-related factors. Language Learning, 69(4), 943–977. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12364 Salaberry, M. R., & Kunitz, S. (Eds.). (2019). Teaching and testing L2 interactional competence: Bridging theory and practice. Routledge. Sidnell, J., & Stivers, T. (Eds.). (2013). The handbook of conversation analysis. Wiley-Blackwell. Sundqvist, P., & Sylvén, L. K. (2016). Extramural English in teaching and learning: From theory and research to practice. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-46048-6

• Kaatari, Henrik; Larsson, Tove; Wang, Ying; Sundqvist, Pia & Kim, Taehyeong (2024). The effect of self-initiated L2 activities on intermediate-level students' lexical complexity. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & Ulfat, Nasrin (2024). Another STAGE for learning: Starting age of formal instruction, extramural English, and L2 English proficiency levels. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This presentation is part of STAGE [STarting AGe and Extramural English], a project whose aim is to provide insights into the input-acquisition relationship by unraveling the relative contribution of formal instruction and extramural English (EE, Sundqvist, 2009) to second/foreign language (L2) learners’ English proficiency. Specifically, the project investigates the impact of an early start of formal instruction in an input-rich context by comparing early starters in Norway (English introduced in grade 1; i.e., similar to Sweden, grades 1–3) and late starters in Flanders (English introduced in grade 7/8). Using a cross-sectional design, learners in both settings are compared in grade 1 (age 5–6, baseline data), grade 6 (age 11–12), and grade 10 (age 15–16) in terms of their EE, vocabulary knowledge, reading comprehension, and speaking. Thus, the starting age of instruction differs, but both contexts are similar regarding the omnipresence of out-of-school English. The study presented is grounded in theories about L2 acquisition: sociocultural theory (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006) and usage-based perspectives on learning (Cadierno & Eskildsen, 2015). Results from research show, e.g., that in regions where L2 TV programs are subtitled (L1), learners tend to have large amounts of EE from an early age (Hannibal Jensen, 2017), as English is the dominant language of popular culture; such regions have advantages in terms of L2 learning. Studies exploring EE and L2 learning have consistently shown benefits of EE, for both instructed learners (Lindgren & Muñoz, 2013; Peters et al., 2019) and learners without any formal instruction yet (De Wilde et al., 2020; Puimège & Peters, 2019). While there is EE-research examining its relation to L2 proficiency, to date, there have been no controlled, large-scale studies comparing the association between different types of EE (e.g., gaming, watching television) and various proficiency measures in different age groups across different instructional contexts. Regarding starting age for L2 instruction, unlike for immigrant learners in naturalistic L2 learning settings (DeKeyser, 2011), there does not seem to be an age effect. An early start does not necessarily result in higher L2 proficiency when the weekly lesson time is limited; in fact, late starters catch up quickly because of higher cognitive maturity (Jaekel et al., 2017; Pfenninger & Singleton, 2017). Quantity and quality of input are more important predictors of L2 proficiency (Muñoz, 2014). Moreover, so far, research into early instruction has mainly been conducted in regions where English exposure tends to be limited to school, with very little research into the long-term effects of an early start in regions providing large amounts of EE. In our presentation, focus is on quantitative findings about characteristics of EE in Norway and Flanders. Data consist of questionnaires, language diaries, and interviews. A non-probability sampling methods was used (Dörnyei & Taguchi, 2010); the sample was a carefully selected convenience sample (Norway: N=579; Flanders: N=c. 450, to be completed). Quantitative data are currently being analyzed. EE is expected to be similar in both settings at all three levels. The results will be discussed considering the symposium theme.

• Schurz, Alexandra & Sundqvist, Pia (2024). Bringing learners’ extramural English into the classroom. Teacher-reported practices in four countries. Full text in Research Archive
• Kaatari, Henrik; Larsson, Tove; Wang, Ying & Sundqvist, Pia (2024). The impact of extramural English activities on lexical sophistication in intermediate-level L2 student writing. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Frequent engagement in extramural English (EE) activities (i.e., English-language activities that students engage in outside of the classroom) has been shown to positively influence L2 students’ vocabulary size, listening and reading comprehension, and oral proficiency (e.g., Sundqvist, 2009, 2019; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012). However, while previous studies have greatly contributed to our understanding of the relationship between EE and students’ receptive knowledge as typically measured through formal tests, our understanding of the relationship between such activities and students’ production remains somewhat rudimentary (though see Kaatari et al., 2023 and Sundqvist & Wikström, 2015). In particular, as lexical complexity has been shown to be strongly correlated with writing quality (Kyle & Crossley, 2016), it seems that an investigation of the relationship between EE activities and lexical complexity would be a fruitful next step toward increasing our understanding of the role that EE activities play in L2 English writing. Against this background, the present study examines the effect of EE activities on one important aspect of lexical complexity – lexical sophistication – in intermediate-level student writing in L2 English. Furthermore, we test the hypothesis posed in Kaatari et al. (2023) that certain EE activities may lead students to produce more speech-like (or informal) writing. The study uses data from the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC; Kaatari et al., forthcoming), which consists of argumentative texts written by Swedish junior and senior high school students (school years 7–12). SLEC includes data on how many hours per week students (i) read in English, (ii) watch TV shows or movies in English, (iii) engage in conversations in English, (iv) use social media with English content, and (v) communicate in English while playing computer/video games. We also make use of two reference corpora: ICLE-SE (written university-level argumentative texts) and LINDSEI-SE (spoken university-level interaction). The following research questions are investigated: • What effect (if any) do different EE activities and school year have on lexical sophistication? • Focusing on EE activities and school year, what differences and similarities are there of lexical sophistication in SLEC vs. ICLE-SE and LINDSEI-SE? We use three types of lexical sophistication that have been shown in the psycholinguistics literature to have high validity: contextual distinctiveness (Kiss et al., 1973; Nelson et al., 1998), concreteness (Brysbaert et al., 2014; Coltheart, 1981), and age of exposure (Dascalu et al., 2016). We then fitted one regression model per measure. The results showed that extramural English reading has a positive impact on concreteness. For the other two types of lexical sophistication measures, no significant effect of the EE activities was found, whereas school year was a significant predictor for all measures included. The results further showed that the student texts included in the SLEC are more similar to LINDSEI-SE (speech) than they are to ICLE-SE (writing) in terms of lexical sophistication. Although only small differences were found, the results also showed that the extramural English reading group exhibits most similarities to the university writing in ICLE-SE.

• Prophète, Elien; Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2024). Comparing quantitative instruments for mapping extramural English: Young learners’ exposure, writing skills and grammaticality judgements. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In previous work on informal second language learning, several methods have been adopted to measure extramural English (EE; Sundqvist, 2009), including questionnaires (e.g., Puimège & Peters, 2019), language diaries (e.g., Hannibal Jensen, 2017), interviews (e.g., Sylvén, 2022), and focus groups (De Wilde & Eyckmans, 2022). Despite the methodological challenges that come with mapping exposure, to our knowledge, no previous study has compared different EE instruments. In this presentation, we share our experiences of gauging young Flemish participants’ (age 11–12) EE using two quantitative instruments (i.e. a questionnaire and a language diary), while investigating the link between exposure, writing skills and grammaticality judgement.

• Sauro, Shannon; Sundqvist, Pia; Gudmundsdottir, Greta Björk & Nicolaou, Anna (2024). Critical virtual exchange to address teachers’ needs in times of conflict. Full text in Research Archive
• Kaatari, Henrik; Larsson, Tove; Wang, Ying; Sundqvist, Pia & Kim, Taehyeong (2024). Lexical complexity and L2 English learners: The effect of different self-initiated out-of-school activities on writing. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Frequent engagement in extramural English (EE) activities (English-language activities that students engage in outside of the classroom) has been shown to positively influence students’ L2 receptive and productive skills (e.g., Sundqvist, 2009, 2019). There are also indications in previous studies that the type of EE input students receive affects their production (Kaatari et al., 2023). Extending this line of research, we test the role of the type of input students receive through EE activities focusing specifically on the effect on lexical complexity. In doing so, we look at junior and senior high school student writing in L2 English from the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC; Kaatari et al., forthcoming). SLEC contains information about how many hours per week students engage in five EE activities: reading, watching, conversation, social media, and gaming. We use three types of psycholinguistic lexical sophistication measures: contextual distinctiveness, concreteness, and age of exposure, along with one measure of lexical diversity (moving average type-token ratio). Specifically, we build on previous research and ask the following research questions that also serve as our hypotheses: - Does frequent engagement with spoken input (conversation and watching) result in a higher degree of linguistic diversity than other types of EE exposure? - Does frequent engagement with longer written input (reading) result in a higher degree of linguistic sophistication, than other types of EE? To test these specific hypotheses, we use Structural Equation Modeling (SEM; Larsson et al., 2021). Competing measured variable path analysis models were fitted, systematically testing our hypotheses. The best-fitting model (χ2: 0.14, df: 20, CFI: 0.99, RMSEA: 0.033[0.00–0.064], SRMR: 0.067) confirmed all three of our hypotheses. It thus seems crucial to avoid grouping EE activities together into a single category, but instead consider what type of input students are exposed to.

• Uztosun, Mehmet Sercan & Sundqvist, Pia (2024). Extramural English in the Turkish context: Scale development and the relationship with English proficiency. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Extramural English (EE) has recently become an emerging and evolving research field in SLA research (Schwarz, 2020). The concept provides a theoretical basis for out-of-class and selfinitiated English activities that may contribute English language learning either incidentally or intentionally (Sundqvist, 2009). Previous research studies showed that EE plays an important role in language learning as it correlates with language proficiency, including vocabulary knowledge (e.g. De Wilde & Eyckmans, 2017; Sundqvist, 2009, 2019), speaking competence (Sundqvist & Wikstr¨om, 2015) and reading and listening comprehension skills (Sylv´en & Sundqvist, 2012). Most studies measured EE using questionnaires (Lee, 2022), which presents a methodological limitation because questionnaires may not provide reliable and valid scores (D¨ornyei and Taguchi, 2010). Hence, there is a need for the development of scales that measure EE in a reliable and valid ways. This need was addressed by Sundqvist and Uztosun (in press) who developed EE scale in the Scandinavian context and called for a need to develop EE scales in different contexts. This study was designed to address this call. It aimed to develop the Turkish version of the EE scale (TEE scale) and reveal whether EE engagement is related to English as a foreign language (EFL) proficiency. TEE scale was developed in two stages: exploratory factor analysis (N = 308) and confirmatory factor analysis (N = 310), which were followed by measuring its test-retest reliability (N = 57) and known-groups validity (N = 102). The data were collected from English language teaching departments at seven universities in T¨urkiye. The analyses led to a 47-item TEE Scale that is loaded onto nine factors: 1) EE Digital Creativity, 2) EE Gaming, 3) EE Music, 4) EE Social Interaction, 5) EE Reading and listening, 6) EE Internalised, 7) EE Writing, 8) EE Social reading and listening, 9) EE googling and viewing. TEE scale was administered to 56 students at a university in Istanbul who took preparatory exemption examination that comprised three tests: reading/listening, writing, and speaking. In addition to completing the scale, the participants were invited to submit their test scores. The data were analysed using Pearson correlation analysis. The finding revealed that EE correlated with three test scores at moderate levels: total exam score r(56) = 0.48; p < .01), reading and listening (r(56) = 0.38; p < .01) and speaking r(56) = 0.46; p < .01). Strong correlations were found between speaking test scores and EE internalized r(56) = 0.60; p < .01) and total exam score and EE internalized r(56) = 0.52; p < .01). Further significant positive correlations were found between test scores and different factors in the TEE scale. These finding revealed that EE is related with English language proficiency yet different EE activities play distinct roles. The findings also confirmed that EE is context-specific in nature because the TEE scale led different factors than EE scale. Implications are discussed regarding the need for developing EE scales in different contexts and role of EE in language learning.

• Prophète, Elien; Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2024). Linking input and acquisition: Young learners’ extramural English, writing and grammar skills before English instruction. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In many European (subtitling) countries, young L2 learners have ample opportunity to engage with English outside of the classroom. Studies have not only shown learners’ extensive amounts of extramural English (EE; Sundqvist, 2009), they have also consistently reported positive relationships between EE and several language proficiency measures, including vocabulary knowledge (e.g., Hannibal Jensen, 2017; Puimège & Peters, 2019), listening proficiency and reading proficiency (e.g., De Wilde et al., 2020; Lindgren & Muñoz, 2013). These positive associations were found with learners who had already received English lessons (e.g., Hannibal Jensen, 2017) and with those who had not (e.g., De Wilde et al., 2020). The present study aims to extend existing knowledge on the relationship between young learners’ EE and language proficiency by focussing on learners’ writing and grammaticality judgement, two language proficiency measures that have received little attention. We collected data from 444 Dutch-speaking children in the final year of primary school (age 11-12) who had not received formal English instruction. The participants completed an English writing test (European Commission, 2012) and a grammaticality judgement task (Pfenninger, 2014). A questionnaire was used to tap into learners’ EE and their language backgrounds. Our results show high levels of EE among participants and reveal considerable scores for writing (M = 8.7, max. = 32) and grammaticality judgement (M = 52.4, max. = 98), given that participants took part prior to English instruction. Preliminary simple linear regression analyses indicate that EE is a significant predictor of both writing proficiency (R2= .15, F(1, 97) = 16.67, p < .001) and grammar knowledge (R2= .29, F(1, 393) = 157.72, p < .001). These findings demonstrate, for the first time, that writing and grammar skills can be acquired through mere exposure. Supporting usage-based theories, this once again underlines the key role of input in the language learning process.

• Sundqvist, Pia; Gyllstad, Henrik; Peters, Elke; Rindal, Ulrikke; Skar, Gustaf B. & Ulfat, Nasrin (2024). First-graders know L2 English vocabulary – viewing, gaming, YouTube. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This presentation uncovers the relation between very young second/foreign language learners’ English vocabulary knowledge and extramural English (EE, Sundqvist, 2009). Research has shown that music, gaming, and TV are important EE sources (Puimège & Peters, 2019) and indicated gender-related differences for EE and vocabulary (Hannibal Jensen, 2017). Data were collected from 60 1st-graders (aged 5–6) in Norway: learner and parental questionnaires, and a shortened (k=31) Picture Vocabulary Size Test (Anthony & Nation, 2017). Results-wise, participants knew on average 12.32 words (SD=5.13). Gamers scored higher than non-gamers; no gender-related EE or vocabulary differences were found. The presentation ends with a glimpse of SYLT-VOC, a test for young learners.

• Prophète, Elien; Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2024). Learning English beyond the classroom: Young EFL learners’ grammaticality judgement and writing proficiency prior to formal English instruction. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In many European (subtitling) countries, young L2 learners have ample opportunity to engage with English beyond the classroom setting. Studies have not only reported learners’ extensive amounts of extramural English (EE; Sundqvist, 2009), they have also consistently demonstrated positive relationships between EE and several language proficiency measures, including, for example, vocabulary knowledge (e.g., Hannibal Jensen, 2017; J´ohannsd´ottir, 2018; Puim`ege & Peters, 2019), listening proficiency and reading proficiency (e.g., De Wilde et al., 2020; Lindgren & Mu˜noz, 2013). These positive associations were found with learners who had already received English lessons (e.g., Hannibal Jensen, 2017) and with those who had not (e.g., De Wilde et al., 2020; Puim`ege & Peters, 2019). The present study aims to extend existing knowledge on the link between young learners’ EE and language proficiency by focussing on grammaticality judgement and writing, two language proficiency facets that have received little attention. More specifically, we investigate the relationship between different EE activities (e.g., watching TV, using social media, gaming) and learners’ grammar knowledge and writing skills. We collected data from 445 children (N = 244 monolingual Dutch; N = 176 multilingual(1)) in the final year of primary school (age 11-12) who had not received formal English instruction. The participants completed an English writing test (European Commission, 2012) and a grammaticality judgement task (Pfenninger, 2014). A questionnaire was used to tap into learners’ EE and their language backgrounds.Our data indicated high levels of EE among participants, especially activities related to music, games, social media and YouTube videos. The results showed that learners had acquired grammar knowledge (M = 52.4, SD = 20.90, max. = 98). There was considerable variance in the writing test scores (M = 11.41, SD = 3.62, max. = 32), as some participants were not able to write in English while others managed to produce a short English text. Multiple regression analyses revealed that EE significantly predicted both grammar knowledge (Rˆ2= .37, F(4, 364) = 53.36, p < .001) and writing proficiency (Rˆ2= .17, F(4, 254) = 13.27, p < .001),after controlling for parental education, cognate linguistic distance and multilingual status. The strongest predictors for grammaticality judgement were watching TV without subtitles (β =.19, p < .001), YouTube videos (β = .27, p < .001), social media use (β = .18, p < .001) and speaking and writing in English (β = .22, p < .001). The strongest gains for writing were found from watching YouTube clips (β = .18, p = .017) and social media (β = .21, p = .004). Our findings demonstrate that grammar skills and writing can be acquired outside the classroom,through mere exposure. The results will be interpreted in light of usage-based theories which (1) 25 responses were missing.

• Peters, Elke & Sundqvist, Pia (2024). The role of starting age for L2 English proficiency in input-rich settings: The case of Flanders and Sweden. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This presentation discusses the role of starting age of formal English instruction for English listening comprehension and vocabulary knowledge in two input-rich learning settings, Flanders and Sweden. It aims to contribute to the ongoing debate on early foreign/second (L2) instruction. An early start for L2 English instruction is on the rise in Europe, as most countries are now offering L2 classes in primary schools (Nikolov, 2009). Nevertheless, the research evidence for the potential benefits of an early start remains inconclusive. Some studies have found positive effects of an early start (e.g., De Graaff, 2015; Jaekel et al., 2022), while others failed to show any advantage for early starters compared to late starters (e.g., Baumert et al., 2020; Pfenninger & Singleton, 2017). However, most studies have been conducted in countries with relatively little out-of-school contact with L2 English (Mu˜noz & Cadierno, 2021; Schurz & Sundqvist, 2022). Still, little is known about the effects of early L2 instruction in input-rich learning settings, where learners regularly come into contact with English outside of school, often referred to as extramural English (Sundqvist, 2009). The research contexts of this exploratory study are Flanders (Dutch-speaking region in Belgium) and Sweden. Unlike Sweden, where children receive their first English lessons in grade 1, 2, or 3 (age 7–9), children in Flanders start with formal English instruction in grade 7 (age 12–13) or 8 (age 13–14). Both regions are settings where L2 English learners have large amounts of extramural English (De Wilde et al., 2020; Peters et al., 2019; Puimège & Peters, 2019; Sundqvist, 2009; Sundqvist & Wikström, 2015). Our study includes participants aged 11–13 (Younger Group, n = 139) and 15–16 (Older Group, n = 52) in Sweden and Flanders (N = 191). The Flemish learners in the Younger Group had had no English instruction at the time of data collection. Data were collected through a questionnaire tapping into learners’ extramural English, a listening comprehension test, the Picture Vocabulary Size Test (PVST, Anthony & Nation, 2017), and the Vocabulary Size Test (VST, Nation & Beglar, 2007). The VST was only administered to the Older Group. The findings indicated that starting age had a large effect on learners’ listening comprehension in the Younger Group with higher scores for the early starters (Sweden) (t = 10.019, p < .001, Cohen’s d = 1.839), but not in the Older Group. Regarding vocabulary knowledge, there were no differences between the early and late starters in the Younger Group. However, the late starters (Flanders) significantly outperformed the early starters (Sweden) in the Older Group on the PVST and the effect was large (t = -3.255, p = .002, Cohen’s d = 0.903). They also obtained higher scores on the VST, but not significantly so (t = -1;164, p = .250, Cohen’s d = 0.323, medium effect). The presentation concludes with some implications for L2 English instruction.

• Kaatari, Henrik; Larsson, Tove; Wang, Ying; Sundqvist, Pia & Kim, Taehyeong (2024). L2 extramural activities and lexical complexity. Full text in Research Archive
• Kaatari, Henrik; Larsson, Tove; Wang, Ying; Sundqvist, Pia & Kim, Taehyeong (2024). What type of language input has a positive effect on lexical complexity? A study of L2 student writing. Full text in Research Archive
• Rindal, Ulrikke & Sundqvist, Pia (2024). Oh my gosh! Emotion and engagement with extramural English among 6-year-olds. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research has shown that self-initiated engagement with English outside school – extramural English (EE) – is related to the development of foreign/second language (L2) English proficiency (Sundqvist, 2009). Since learners do activities they enjoy while using their L2, EE reflects both emotional and cognitive engagement (Sundqvist & Uztosun, 2023). However, limited research has explored young learners using digital technologies in their L2. This paper presents a study exploring EE engagement among three 6-year-olds (1st-graders) through informal interviews with artefacts in combination with observations in the home (Coupland & Creese, 2015). The participants, one with a high score (Bro) and two with medium scores (Celine and Marcus) on a picture vocabulary test, were sampled from the STAGE project (University of Oslo, 2021). Audio recordings of home interviews and field notes were analysed inductively to explore how engagement with games, YouTube and music created affordances for L2 learning in the home. The results showed how Bro, Celine and Marcus were exposed to English-speaking media and actively engaged with English using digital platforms. Their engagement was characterised by social interaction and shared interests with family members, in homes with generally positive attitudes towards multilingualism and encouragement of English language use. Overall, the results suggest that a combination of positive attitudes and access to technical devices affords incidental L2 English learning in the home. Such type of EE engagement will most likely influence learners’ proficiency in different ways, suggesting it might be challenging for teachers to elicit latent competence in the youngest learners. Informal conversations with the participants’ teacher suggested that Bro’s above-average L2 English vocabulary knowledge developed from extensive gaming remained undiscovered in the first months of schooling, while Celine’s music interest and initiated dialogues about everyday topics as well as idiomatic expressions (e.g., ”Oh my gosh!”) might have been more accessible during English lessons.

• Kaatari, Henrik; Larsson, Tove; Wang, Ying; Sundqvist, Pia & Kim, Taehyeong (2024). Self-initiated L2 English activities and their effects on lexical complexity in student writing. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Frequent engagement in extramural English (EE) activities (i.e., English-language activities that students engage in outside of the classroom) has been shown to positively influence L2 students’ receptive and productive skills (e.g., Sundqvist, 2009, 2019; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012). There are also indications in previous studies that the type of EE input students receive affects their production. For example, Kaatari et al. (2023) found that written input (reading) had a positive impact exclusively on students’ noun phrase complexity, whereas spoken input (conversation and watching) was associated exclusively with more diverse vocabulary. Written input may thus be expected to result in more frequent use of features commonly associated with academic writing, while spoken input may be expected to result in a broader, though not necessarily more advanced or sophisticated, vocabulary. The present study starts off where Kaatari et al. (2023) left off by systematically testing the role of the type of input students receive through EE activities focusing specifically on lexical complexity. As lexical complexity has been shown to be correlated with writing quality (Kyle & Crossley, 2016), investigating the relationship between EE activities and lexical complexity seems like a fruitful next step toward increasing our understanding of the specific role that different EE activities play across student levels. In order to cover more of the construct of lexical complexity, we extend Kaatari et al.’s (2023) study of lexical diversity to also include lexical sophistication and by including a wider range of student levels. We look at junior and senior high school student writing in L2 English from the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC; Kaatari et al., forthc.). SLEC contains information about how many hours per week students engage in five EE activities: reading, watching, conversation, social media, gaming. We use three types of lexical sophistication measures that have been shown in the psycholinguistics literature to have high validity: contextual distinctiveness (Nelson et al., 1998), concreteness (Brysbaert et al., 2014), and age of exposure (Dascalu et al., 2016). We also use one measure of lexical diversity (moving average type-token ratio; Covington & McFall, 2010). Specifically, we ask the following research questions that also serve as our hypotheses: 1) Does frequent engagement with spoken conversation (conversation and watching) result in a higher degree of linguistic diversity than other types of EE exposure? 2) Does frequent engagement with longer written input (reading) result in a higher degree of linguistic sophistication, than other types of EE? 3) Does lexical complexity improve steadily across student levels? To test these specific hypotheses, we use Structural Equation Modeling (SEM; see Larsson et al., 2021). Competing measured variable path analysis models were fitted, systematically looking at the hypothesized effects of the different EE activities on the four complexity measures. The best-fitting model (χ2: 0.14, df: 20, CFI: 0.99, RMSEA: 0.033[0.00–0.064], SRMR: 0.067) confirmed all three of our hypotheses. It thus seems crucial to avoid grouping EE activities together into a single category, but instead consider what type of input students are exposed to. We also discuss implications for teachers.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2024). A revised L2 English learning pyramid: The importance of extramural English for informal learning and formal instruction. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In this talk, I will focus on research on informal foreign/second language (L2) learning with a focus on English as a target language and using the concept of extramural English (EE, Sundqvist, 2011). This type of research takes an interest in learners’ self-initiated engagement with L2 English outside the walls of the classroom through activities such as listening to music, playing digital games, reading, and watching videos. Many (but not all) young people are frequently involved in such EE activities and their engagement encompasses at least three distinct, yet interrelated, dimensions: behavioral, cognitive, and emotional/affective engagement (Fredricks et al., 2016; Sundqvist & Uztosun, 2023). Research amongst young and teenage learners have shown positive relations between EE and various aspects of L2 English proficiency, such as vocabulary knowledge, writing, speaking, and comprehension (Zhang et al., 2021). However, in comparison, young learners (age 6–12) are clearly under-researched. In my presentation, I will focus on findings from EE research among mainly young but also teenage learners in contexts such as Belgium (e.g., De Wilde & Eyckmans, 2017; Puimège & Peters, 2019), Scandinavia (e.g., Hannibal Jensen, 2017; Sundqvist, 2019; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012), Spain (e.g., Soto-Corominas et al., 2024), and Greece (e.g., Rothoni, 2017), and discuss the pedagogical implications. In many contexts, it appears that EE has replaced classroom activities as the starting point for, and foundation of, learning English, which I view as a structural change. I will illustrate this change by use of a revised version of the L2 English learning pyramid (first introduced in Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2016). Finally, I will argue that informal learning of English through engagement in EE constitutes an important individual difference variable that should never be overlooked in any studies that aim to measure L2 English proficiency or development (Sundqvist, 2024).

• Sundqvist, Pia & Uztosun, Mehmet Sercan (2023). L2 English speaking anxiety and perceived competence: Comparing gamers and non-gamers in Scandinavia. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Today it is commonly acknowledged that foreign/second language (L2) learning goes beyond the classroom walls. The concept Extramural English (EE, Sundqvist, 2009) and its framework (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2016) offer a theoretical basis for explaining self-initiated activities outside the classroom that contribute to learning, whether incidental or intentional. Studies show that EE may enhance English development among learners of different ages (Hannibal Jensen, 2017; Lee & Dressman, 2018; Rankin et al., 2006) and that it can foster positive affective states (Lai et al., 2015; Lee & Drajati, 2020; Reinders & Wattana, 2015). Further, research has revealed benefits of particular EE activities, such as watching television (Puimège & Peters, 2019), listening to music (De Wilde et al., 2022), and playing video games (Sundqvist, 2019). To date, however, few EE studies have focused on speaking anxiety, a crucial individual difference variable in L2 learning (Woodrow, 2006). This study aims to fill this gap by investigating whether EE gamers (n = 115) and non-gamers (n = 255) in Scandinavia (mean age: 30.85; age range: 11–87) differ in terms of self-reported L2 English speaking anxiety and perceived competence (variables: speaking, understanding, reading, writing, pronunciation, oral fluency, spoken accuracy, and overall speaking ability). The participants responded to an online questionnaire. Independent samples t-test results yielded statistically significant differences for all variables: gamers reported feeling less anxious and having more positive perceived L2 competence. The findings suggest that gaming can play an important role in L2 learning by decreasing negative – and increasing positive – affective states.

• Kaatari, Henrik; Larsson, Tove; Wang, Ying; Eikhoff, Seda Acikara & Sundqvist, Pia (2023). On the impact of extramural activities on L2 student writing. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Frequent engagement in Extramural English (EE) activities (i.e., out-of-school English-language activities) has been shown to positively influence non-native-speaker high school students’ vocabulary size in English (Sundqvist 2009). However, our understanding of the relationship between EE activities and students’ productive skills, in particular with regard to lexical diversity and grammatical complexity, remains somewhat rudimentary. This study examines the effect of EE activities on lexical diversity and noun phrase (NP) complexity features in high school student second-language writing and answers the following questions: • What effect (if any) does EE activities have on lexical diversity and/or NP complexity? • Are there differences between purely receptive EE activities vs. other types of EE activities in terms of the effect of lexical diversity and NP complexity, and, if so, what are the differences? A balanced subset of the Swedish Learner English Corpus (SLEC; grades 10–11; n=200) was used. SLEC contains detailed information about how frequently students engage in five EE activities: social media, conversation, reading, watching, and gaming. We used moving average type-token ratio to measure lexical diversity and the rate of occurrence of attributive adjectives and prepositional phrases as modifiers in NPs to measure NP complexity. We applied measured variable path analysis from the Structural Equation Modeling framework (SEM). Specifically, we fitted three competing models, looking at the effect of different sets of EE activities on all three complexity measures in a single model. The best-fitting model (CFI: 96.6, RMSEA: 0.023[0.00–0.067], SRMR: 0.039) confirmed our hypotheses that (a) EE activities (mostly) have a positive effect on students’ lexical diversity and NP complexity, and (b) that the purely receptive activities (in particular reading) had a stronger effect on lexical diversity. Reference Sundqvist, P. 2009. Extramural English matters: Out-of-school English and its impact on Swedish ninth graders' oral proficiency and vocabulary. Karlstad University Studies, 2009:55.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2023). ─ Vi må gjøre det vi kan for å støtte lærere og ukrainske barn på flukt. [Internet]. Det utdanningsvetenskaplige fakultet. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2023). Walk the line: Teaching L2 English and young learners’ gaming inside and outside the classroom. Full text in Research Archive
• Peters, Elke; Prophète, Elien & Sundqvist, Pia (2023). “I learnt English on YouTube”: Young Flemish learners’ out-of-class exposure, grammar knowledge and writing proficiency prior to formal English instruction. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Although English is not an official language in Belgium, it is omnipresent in Flemish society. This creates ample opportunity for learners of English as a foreign language (EFL) to come into contact with English in an informal way. The relationship between extramural English (Sundqvist, 2009) and language learning has been of interest to SLA researchers for over a decade. Most studies have focused on learners’ receptive skills. These studies have consistently revealed positive associations between the amount of extramural English and different language proficiency measures, including reading (e.g.Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012), listening (e.g. Lindgren & Muñoz, 2013), and, in particular, vocabulary (e.g. Hannibal Jensen, 2017; Jóhannsdóttir, 2018; Puimège & Peters, 2019). Fewer studies have looked at productive language skills, but positive relationships between extramural English and speaking (e.g. De Wilde et al., 2020) and productive vocabulary knowledge (Bollansée et al., 2021) have also been found. In this presentation, we will shed more light on the relationship between young EFL learners’ extramural English and two language proficiency measures that have received little attention: grammar knowledge and writing skills. We collected data from 444 Flemish pupils in the final year of primary school (Mage = 11.58 years) who had not received formal English instruction. The participants took an English grammaticality judgement test (Pfenninger, 2014) and a writing test, which consisted of four writing tasks (European Commission, 2012). They also completed a questionnaire on extramural English and their language background (Wouters et al., under review). Our results indicate that participants achieved relatively high scores on the grammaticality judgement test (M = 52.4, SD = 20.90, max. = 98), given that they had no prior English instruction at the time of the data collection. There was considerable variance in the writing test scores with some learners writing almost nothing, while others managed to write short English texts (M = 8.7, SD = 3.70, max. = 32) The data showed high levels of engagement with extramural English. The most popular activities were listening to music, gaming, social media and watching YouTube videos, which shows that learners’ mainly engage with English through popular media. Regression analyses revealed that extramural English is a significant predictor of both grammar skills (𝑅2= .29, F(1, 393) = 157.72, p < .001) and writing proficiency (𝑅2= .15, F(1, 97) = 16.67, p < .001). Our study extends previous findings by showing that learners can also acquire grammar knowledge and writing skills incidentally through extramural English. Our findings underline the importance of language input for second language acquisition and the potential of extramural English in young learners’ acquisition process. We will end our talk by elaborating on the pedagogical implications.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2023). Skal sammenligne engelsknivået i Norge og Belgia. [Journal]. A-magasinet. Full text in Research Archive
• Gyllstad, Henrik; Sundqvist, Pia; Peters, Elke; Rindal, Ulrikke Elisabeth; Skar, Gustaf B. & Ulfat, Nasrin (2023). Very young children know L2 English vocabulary – viewing, gaming, YouTube. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This presentation uncovers the relation between young second/foreign language (L2) learners’ English vocabulary knowledge (meaning recognition) and their self-initiated use of English outside school, extramural English (EE, Sundqvist, 2009), and details results relating to individually tested vocabulary target items. To date, research has shown that music, digital games, and TV are important sources of EE (De Wilde et al., 2020; Puimège & Peters, 2019) and indicated gender-related differences in EE use and vocabulary knowledge (Hannibal Jensen, 2017; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012), but few studies have targeted very young learners. Data were collected from 60 learners aged 5–6 (grade 1) in Norway, consisting of a learner EE questionnaire (individual and oral administration), a parental questionnaire, and a shortened (k=31) Picture Vocabulary Size Test (Anthony & Nation, 2017) based on age-of-acquisition ratings of target items (Kuperman et al., 2012); an “I don’t know” (IDK) option was added. Measurement-wise, the score reliability was somewhat low but acceptable at .79, and the mean item-total correlation was .30. The participants varied widely as to their use of the IDK option (range 0-20; Mean: 3.62; about 30% never used it). Results-wise, despite young age and very little formal instruction in school, participants knew on average 12.32 words (SD=5.13), a finding relevant to teacher practice. Participants who reported playing video games scored higher than non-gamers but only significantly so for specific items. No gender-related EE or vocabulary differences were found. The presentation ends with a glimpse of SYLT-VOC, a test for young learners (the STAGE project).

• Gyllstad, Henrik & Sundqvist, Pia (2023). Effects of word definitions on meaning recall. A multisite intervention in language-diverse second language English classrooms. Full text in Research Archive
• Källkvist, Marie; Sandlund, Erica; Sundqvist, Pia & Gyllstad, Henrik (2023). Translanguaging in EFL with students transitioning to secondary school: Towards a best practice? Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In secondary-school English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) classrooms worldwide, English tends to be used alongside the society or community majority language (Brevik & Rindal 2020; Tsagari & Diakou 2015; Üstünel 2016), and research reveals greater participation and positive attitudes among students when translanguaging is permitted (Ebe 2016; Kleyn 2016; Saxena 2009; Ollerhead 2019; Seltzer & Collins 2016). In Sweden, research in EFL in school years 8-9 (age 14-16) suggests that a translanguaging approach to vocabulary teaching and learning is superior to a monolingual approach (Gyllstad et al. 2022; Källkvist et al. 2022). The present study focuses on year 7 (age 12-13), which normally marks the transition from primary to secondary school, where pupils are expected to communicate monolingually in standardized, national tests. We document classroom translanguaging practices and associated beliefs among four experienced EFL teachers, aiming to understand what ‘best practice’ (beprövad erfarenhet), which is a policy concept (Skolverket 2020), for year 7 may be. Drawing on ethnography of language policy (Hornberger & Johnson 2007), we conducted linguistic ethnography (classroom observation, linguistic landscape analysis, policy-document analysis and interviews), addressing three questions: 1) To what extent and for what purposes did experienced EFL teachers translanguage? 2) By what means did the same teachers encourage students to use English? 3) What beliefs underpinned the same teachers’ practices? Inductive content analysis (Bryman 2016) revealed that all four teachers aimed for English to be the classroom language, but practices meant to encourage students to speak in English as well as some translanguaging practices differed. For example, teachers sometimes responded differently when students used Swedish (the language of schooling), and full translanguaging, i.e. using students’ entire linguistic repertoires, was encouraged in a small group only. We end by reflecting on a best practice for year 7 based on the documented practices, teachers’ beliefs and on multilingualism research in psycholinguistics (Grosjean 2008).

• Schurz, Alexandra & Sundqvist, Pia (2023). Learning English through online games and TV shows? Teachers' views on opportunities for learning and implications for teaching. Yours Truly (Suomen englanninopettajat ry). 30, p. 8–10. Full text in Research Archive
• Kaatari, Henrik; Larsson, Tove; Wang, Ying; Eikhoff, Seda Acikara & Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Exploring the effect of target-language extramural activities on students’ written production. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2022). Teaching L2 English in primary school or not? A comparative pilot study of young learners in input-rich settings with different starting ages of formal English instruction. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Findings from research on the role of age in foreign/second language (L2) learning are inconclusive, and very few studies include possible learning from engagement in Extramural English activities (EE, Sundqvist, 2009). The two STAGE sister projects aim to fill this gap in research by conducting cross-sectional studies and comparing results for learners in Norway and Flanders (the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium) on measures of English proficiency and EE from three age groups: learners in grade 1 (age 6–7), grade 6 (age 11–12), and grade 10 (age 15–16). Norway and Flanders are comparable societies with similar education systems and access to English, but different starting points for English instruction in school: early in Norway (grade 1) and late in Flanders (grade 7/8). This presentation presents the results from a pilot study involving participants aged 11–13 in Sweden (a country similar to Norway, early start) and Flanders (N=144). Data were collected through an EE-questionnaire, a listening comprehension test, and the Picture Vocabulary Size Test (PVST, Anthony & Nation, 2017). Data were analyzed quantitatively. While participants’ engagement in EE was very similar among participants from both settings in terms of frequency and types of preferred EE activities (e.g., listening to music and gaming), the early starters scored higher than the later starters on both tests, which might indicate a positive effect from having received formal instruction (Swedish participants), as opposed to only having been exposed to EE (Flemish participants). Implications for English language teaching and educational policy will be discussed.

• Frisén, Liliann Byman; Sundqvist, Pia & Sandund, Erica (2022). Hur stora skillnader är det i matriser för muntlig bedömning? LMS : Lingua. ISSN 0023-6330. p. 12–15. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Extramural English, media influence, and identity: Focus on Swedish L2 English learners and changed self-perceptions. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In my presentation, I will draw on research on extramural English and what it has taught us about the informal learning of English in out-of-school settings on the one hand, and the crucial role of media in the lifeworlds of young people on the other. Extramural English (EE) refers to ‘English outside the walls of the classroom’ in activities such as listening to music, watching streamed media content, reading books, and online gaming. EE activities are always initiated by the learners themselves, generally for the purpose of entertainment. However, both incidental and intentional (and online and offline) learning of L2 English is covered by the concept. Based on survey and interview data collected over a decade, I have had the opportunity to examine learners’ EE habits from middle school until the end of lower secondary school. In my presentation, I will present some preliminary findings and let learner voices speak to the audience. It will become clear how former learners of English have turned into daily users of English who, contrary to popular belief, demonstrate advanced English knowledge – according to themselves, not least thanks to their consumption of English media.

• Sundqvist, Pia & Nilsson, Rickard (2022). Young gamers in the digital wilds: Implications of gaming preferences on L2 English vocabulary learning and teaching. Babylonia Journal of Language Education. ISSN 1420-0007. 1, p. 14–19. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study involves young learners of English as a foreign/second language (L2) in Sweden. The aim is to see whether there is a relation between their online gaming habits on the one hand and L2 English vocabulary knowledge and listening comprehension on the other, and to investigate known words more closely in relation to their gaming preferences. We collected data with the help of a questionnaire, a vocabulary test, and a listening comprehension test, and analyzed data using a mixed method. The results showed positive correlations between gaming frequency and vocabulary knowledge as well as listening comprehension. Playing multiplayer games appeared more common among those who reported playing always, compared with those who played often or rarely. Pedagogical implications are discussed.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Young Swedish L2 English learners and changed self-perceptions. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In this talk, keeping the goal of #YouthMediaLife in mind, I will draw on research on extramural English and what it has taught us about the informal learning of English in out-of-school settings on the one hand, and the crucial role of media in the lifeworlds of young people on the other. Extramural English (EE) refers to ‘English outside the walls of the classroom’ in activities such as listening to music, watching streamed media content, and online gaming. EE activities are always initiated by the learners themselves, generally for the purpose of entertainment. However, both incidental and intentional (and online and offline) learning of L2 English is covered by the concept. Based on survey and interview data collected over a decade, I have had the opportunity to examine some learners’ EE and media engagement from middle school until the end of lower secondary school. In my presentation, I will let some of their voices speak to the audience. It will become clear how former learners of English have turned into daily users of English who, contrary to popular belief, demonstrate advanced English knowledge – not least thanks to their consumption of English media, according to themselves.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2022). The pyramid is upside down: Age, instruction, and L2 English learning. Full text in Research Archive
• Prophète, Elien; Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2022). Exposure and grammar: Young L2 learners’ extramural English and grammaticality judgement prior to formal instruction. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Gaming and informal learning of English among Swedish youth. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2022). 15 Years of Researching Extramural English: Lessons Learned for ELT. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In this talk, keeping the theme of the conference in mind, I will focus on what fifteen years of research on extramural English has taught us about informal learning of English in out-of-school settings, and how such research findings can inform English language teaching (ELT). During this time period, there has been a clear global trend of implementing formal instruction of English as a foreign/second/additional language (L2) early in primary school (Nikolov & Mihaljević Djigunović, 2011), even though there is little empirical evidence that an early start is beneficial for learners in the long run (Muñoz & Singleton, 2011). Interestingly, during the same period, the opportunities for learning English informally have been richer than ever thanks to technological advancements, learners’ increased access to the internet, and the status of English as a global language (Graddol, 2006). Extramural English (EE) refers to ‘English outside the walls of the classroom’ in activities such as listening to music, reading books, watching streamed media content, and online gaming (Sundqvist, 2009). EE activities are initiated by the learners themselves, generally for the purpose of entertainment. However, both incidental and intentional (and online and offline) learning of L2 English is covered by the concept (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2016). Because EE plays a crucial role in most learners’ daily lives, it is essential that teachers gain knowledge about learners’ EE, but how can that be done, and what are some pedagogical implications for ELT? My presentation aims to shed light on questions such as these.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2021). Online gaming and game-changing: From learning to teaching. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In this talk, with the theme of this year’s roundtable in mind, I will outline empirical work on the relationship between online gaming and second/foreign language (L2) learning. From the many perspectives on this topic, I will focus on research that examines how different variables (such as age, gender, and L2 proficiency) are related to different types of learning via game-mediated interactions with young and adolescent learners engaged in a plethora of English-mediated activities outside of school, including listening to music, reading books, watching streamed media content, as well as gaming online. To be able to participate in online gameplay together with others can be an extremely strong motivator for learning English since English tends to be the default language used in massively multiplayer online games. In my plenary address, I explain positive relationships between online gaming (typically so-called commercial-off-the-shelf games) and various aspects of L2 proficiency, discussing factors like ‘time played’ and ‘types of games played’, with some discussion of languages other than English. I will conclude by asking whether gaming might be a game-changer for L2 teaching in the way it has already been for L2 learning.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2021). Language learning beyond the classroom. [Internet]. Stockholm University. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & Uztosun, Mehmet Sercan (2021). The development of the Extramural English Scale. Full text in Research Archive
• Källkvist, Marie; Sundqvist, Pia; Gyllstad, Henrik & Sandlund, Erica (2021). Flerspråkiga praktiker: en resurs i engelskundervisningen? Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2020). Extramural English research: Definition, findings, and implications. Communicare - et fagdidaktisk tidsskrift fra Fremmedspråksenteret. ISSN 1893-1499. 9, p. 17–21. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia; Brevik, Lisbeth M.; Sandlund, Erica & Rindal, Ulrikke Elisabeth (2019). Conference paper: A comparative study of language use in L2 English multilingual secondary school classrooms in Norway and Sweden. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  It is crucial that teaching practices rest on empirical findings from classroom research. In Norway and Sweden, second language (L2) English teachers have for a long time been guided by monolingual (English Only, EO) ideology, as this is believed to aid learning and many students are proficient enough to use English as the medium of communication (Others, Author1, & Author3, 2017; Lundahl, 2012). While the predominant ideology has been EO, observation studies of classroom work have revealed that in practice, many teachers enact a bilingual, English-Norwegian/Swedish, classroom language policy (Author2 & Author4, 2018; Lundahl, 2012; Author3 & Author1, 2016; Swedish Schools Inspectorate, 2011). However, in light of the growing linguistic diversity in schools in both countries, English may be the only shared language in a particular classroom, which in turn may provide support for EO teaching practices (Lundahl, 2012). Teachers may also adopt teaching practices aligning with a translanguaging ideology and pedagogy in adapting to the multilingual classroom (García & Wei, 2014), which would entail involving students’ entire language repertoires. Notably, there is little guidance from national English curricula regarding classroom language use, leaving teachers to rely on their own professional judgement for what language(s) to use to facilitate students’ learning. Internationally, empirical studies from multilingual L2 English classrooms are scarce, but much needed. The key research question is, then, what languages are used in such classrooms in Norway and Sweden? In this small-scale study, video and audio data were collected from seven lessons in three secondary school classrooms in each country, totaling 14 lessons. Learners were around 14 years old, which means that data were drawn from the 9th grade in Norway and the 8th grade in Sweden. Data were coded using the time-stamping method (Author2 & Author4, forthcoming), employing four codes: (1) ‘Norwegian/Swedish’; (2) ‘English’; (3) ‘Both’ (i.e., code-switching between Norwegian/Swedish and English), and (4) ‘Other language(s)’. A quantitative analysis was then carried out, examining the frequency and duration of each code, and putting those findings also in relation to the total speaking time of each lesson, followed by a qualitative analysis, focusing on characterizing the language practices. Preliminary findings reveal a range from English Only-dominant classrooms to classrooms where the majority language (Norwegian/Swedish) dominated. Whereas code-switching occurred frequently, there was hardly any use of other languages. Findings are discussed in light of learner group compositions, teacher beliefs about language learning and multilingualism, and didactic decisions in situ.

• Ahmadian, Shilan; Brevik, Lisbeth M. & Sundqvist, Pia (2019). Jentene bruker engelsk til å snakke om fag - guttene bruker engelsk til alt mulig. Bedre Skole. ISSN 0802-183X. p. 82–87. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2019). Nyheter från Vetenskapsradion. [Radio]. Sveriges Radio. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2019). Tonåringars engelska bättre av mycket dataspel. [TV]. TV4. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & Sylvén, Liss Kerstin (2018). Unveiling the force of learner-initiated informal language learning: Extramural learning. Language Magazine. January, p. 30–31. Full text in Research Archive
• Sylvén, Liss Kerstin & Sundqvist, Pia (2017). Editorial. Special issue: Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) in extracurricular/extramural contexts. CALICO journal. ISSN 0742-7778. 34(1), p. i–iv. doi: 10.1558/cj.31822. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2016). Ny studie: Dataspelande barn får större ordförråd - Nyhetsmorgon (TV4). [TV]. TV4. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2011). Recension av Peder Stenbergs doktorsavhandling Den allvarsamma leken – Om World of Warcraft och läckaget. Karlstads universitets Pedagogiska Tidskrift (Kapet). ISSN 1653-4743. 7(1), p. 157–167. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2011). Review: McKay (2010), Assessing young language learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Linguistlist. ISSN 1068-4875. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2010). Review: Denham och Lobeck (Eds.) (2010), Linguistics at school: Language awareness in primary and secondary education. Linguistlist. ISSN 1068-4875. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia (2010). ♫ Schlafsjo, jä, jä, jä ♫ – om sambandet fritidsengelska – skolresultat. LMS : Lingua. ISSN 0023-6330. p. 15–17. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & Sylvén, Liss Kerstin (2024). Digital practices in and out of the CLIL classroom: Sweden. A report by CLILNetLE Working Group 4. CLILNetLe. Full text in Research Archive
• Sundqvist, Pia & O'Dowd, Robert (2022). The VALIANT Virtual Exchange manual. Erasmus+. Full text in Research Archive
• Faltas, Marcella; Latuny, Yaël; Sundqvist, Pia & Wikström, Peter (2019). Improving second language vocabulary through gaming. OASIS Summary of Sundqvist, P. & Wikström, P. (2015) in System. OASIS. Full text in Research Archive
• O'Reilly, David; Sundqvist, Pia; Wikström, Peter; Sandlund, Erica & Nyroos, Lina (2018). The teacher as examiner of L2 oral tests: A challenge to standardization. OASIS Summary of Sundqvist et al. (2018) in Language Testing. OASIS. Full text in Research Archive

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