Hedda Novang Wahl

• Wahl, Hedda Novang; Donolato, Enrica; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2025). The psychometric properties of two math anxiety scales in a sample of Norwegian primary school children. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. ISSN 0031-3831. 70(1), p. 147–163. doi: 10.1080/00313831.2025.2459906. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study evaluated the psychometric properties of the Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (AMAS) and the Achievement Emotion Questionnaire – Math Anxiety (AEQ-MA) in a sample of Norwegian primary school students invited to participate during preschool. A total of 222 children completed both scales, and math tasks in Grade 3 and they followed up on the same questionnaires and math tests in Grade 4. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that a two-factor solution best suited the data for both self-report tools, with the AMAS defined by learning anxiety and testing anxiety dimensions and the AEQ-MA defined by the test-related and the class-and-learning math anxiety factors. Both questionnaires showed good internal consistency, measurement invariance across grade levels and genders, and concurrent validity with math tasks. In conclusion, the AMAS and the AEQ-MA present good psychometric properties and are suitable measures for assessing math anxiety in the first grades of formal education among Norwegian children.

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• Donolato, Enrica; Wahl, Hedda Novang; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2026). Math anxiety and math skills development in children: a longitudinal study on early predictors. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction. Math anxiety and math skills are closely intertwined, yet their early predictors in childhood remain poorly understood. Previous research has identified cognitive and affective predictors of math performance, including intelligence and working memory (Amland et al., 2025), knowledge of mathematical symbols (Szczygieł et al., 2024), and general and math anxiety (Barroso et al., 2021; Caviola et al., 2022). Similarly, there is evidence that math anxiety is shaped by general anxiety (Szczygieł et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2014), working memory (Pellizzoni et al., 2022), and knowledge of mathematical symbols (Szczygieł et al., 2024). Despite extensive correlational evidence, few longitudinal studies have systematically examined cognitive and affective predictors of math anxiety and math skills in school-age children. Research Aims. The goal of this study is to examine children’s math anxiety and math skills development and identify their cognitive and affective predictors in a sample of children followed up from kindergarten to primary school. Materials and Methods. The sample consisted of 259 children (52% boys; M age = 5.5 years at project onset). At the first time point, during their final year of preschool, children completed assessments of cognitive abilities, numeracy skills, and general anxiety. From Grade 3 to Grade 6, children were assessed annually on math anxiety (Achievement Emotions Questionnaire–Math Anxiety; AEQ-MA), arithmetic fluency (Test of Basic Arithmetic and Numeracy Skills; TOBANS) and a mathematical reasoning (Word Problems subtest of the WISC-IV). Assessments were administrated individually in sessions of approximately 60 minutes during kindergarten or school hours. Results. Growth models are being used to examine math anxiety and math skills and to test early predictors of individual differences in growth. Final results from ongoing analyses will clarify the extent to which early cognitive, numeracy and affective factors contribute to changes in math anxiety and math skills in primary school. Discussion. These findings are expected to contribute to a better understanding of early factors that may place children at risk for unfavourable trajectories in developing math anxiety or poor math skills. The study has implications for early identification, highlighting how targeting foundational skills may support both math skills and mitigate math anxiety. Findings will further inform how these insights can be translated into educational practices to enhance young students’ successful math learning.

• Lervåg, Arne; Wahl, Hedda Novang; Donolato, Enrica & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). The developmental dynamics between math anxiety and math skills: examining three theories. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction. Math anxiety is consistently associated with poorer learning and achievement, yet the direction of this relationship remains debated (e.g., Namkung et al., 2019). Three primary theoretical models explain the link between anxiety and achievement. The reduced competency model suggests that weak math skills generate anxiety. The learning avoidance model proposes that anxiety leads students to disengage from practice and participation, thereby harming performance. The reciprocal model integrates both processes, proposing a cyclical relationship in which poor skills increase anxiety, which in turn further impairs achievement (Carey et al., 2016). Some studies using traditional cross-lagged panel models support reciprocal effects (Gunderson et al., 2018). However, newer Random Intercept-Cross-Lagged Panel Models (RI-CLPMs) control for stable individual differences, allowing clearer examination of within-person changes over time (Hammaker et al., 2015). One five-year study applying RI-CLPMs found that anxiety negatively predicted later math grades within individuals, whereas grades did not predict anxiety. Thus, whereas traditional CLPM findings favor the reciprocal model, RI-CLPM results align more closely with the learning avoidance model. However, this study relied on grades rather than standardized tests, and anxiety was not assessed specifically in testing contexts. Research Aims. The present study uses RI-CLPMs to examine whether developmental relations between math anxiety and achievement vary across anxiety types, providing a more nuanced understanding of how emotions influence children’s mathematical learning. Norwegian students were followed from Grade 3 to Grade 6, with two different measures of anxiety, class anxiety and test anxiety. Methods. Two hundred and fifty children's math anxiety and math word problem skills were tested annually over three years. Results. The results show that earlier higher levels of test anxiety were significantly related to poorer later math skills. For class anxiety, there was a significant relation in the opposite direction. Poor math skills were related to later math class anxiety. In this model, there was also some evidence of a relationship in the opposite direction, but sensitivity tests suggest this might be due to confounders. Further analyses also revealed that the effect of poor math skills on class anxiety was moderated by gender, with higher effect sizes for girls than for boys. Discussion. Support was found for all the above-mentioned three theories of this relationship, but the results suggest types of anxiety and gender might moderate the direction and strength of the relations between anxiety and math skills.

• Mononen, Riikka; Tapola, Anna; Lopez-Pedersen, Anita & Wahl, Hedda Novang (2019). Mathematical Skills as a Predictor of Interest in Mathematics in the First Grade. Full text in Research Archive
• Mononen, Riikka; Tapola, Anna; Lopez-Pedersen, Anita & Wahl, Hedda Novang (2019). Mathematical Skills as a Predictor of Interest in Mathematics in the First Grade. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study examined how Norwegian first graders’ (N = 297) mathematical skills predicted their interest (i.e., enjoyment and participation) in mathematics-related activities. Students’ mathematical skills (i.e., relational skills, counting skills and arithmetic) were measured during the school year, six months before their parents answered a questionnaire on child interest. After controlling for students’ gender and parents’ educational level, the results of hierarchical regression analyses showed that mathematical skills statistically significantly predicted both enjoyment and participation (β = .358 and β = .307, respectively). As early mathematical skills seem to enhance later interest in the domain, our findings emphasize the importance of early support for students with weak mathematical skills, before their difficulties start to interfere with motivation and interest.

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