Fazilat Siddiq

• Daus, Stephan; Vennerød-Diesen, Frida Felicia; Smedsrud, Jørgen Hammer; Sønstelie, Nora & Siddiq, Fazilat (2026). Blended learning for early numeracy is no panacea: a quasi-experimental study. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. ISSN 0031-3831. p. 35–35. doi: 10.1080/00313831.2026.2642596. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Early numeracy skills are falling, leading to quests for new instructional approaches. Blended learning has potential to improve motivation and achievement in mathematics. We investigated the effects on pupil achievement and motivation of using Dragonbox School in 2019-2020, which aims for a holistic early numeracy approach with teacher training, books, physical concretes, and digital components. We used a quasi-experimental pre–post study across one school year, with an overall sample size (Ngrade 1 = 368 grade 1 and Ngrade 2 = 538 pupils), matching on prior data, and using structural equation modelling. Despite teacher satisfaction, we could not find convincing positive effects of the intervention, but found a negative development for motivation in grade 2. The findings imply that this blended learning approach is not a magic bullet, even with satisfied users. We discuss the lack of adaptive features and variable teacher competences as foundation for using the novel approach effectively.

• Scherer, Ronny; Campos, Diego G.; Fütterer, Tim & Siddiq, Fazilat (2026). Unraveling gender disparities in teachers’ technological pedagogical and content knowledge: A large-scale meta-analytic review. Educational Research Review. ISSN 1747-938X. 50. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2026.100765. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This large-scale meta-analytic review investigates gender disparities in pre- and in-service K-12 teachers' Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK) self-efficacy and performance. Synthesizing 915 effect sizes from 102 primary studies and 420 teacher samples (N = 681,745 teachers) in 70 countries via multilevel meta-analyses, we found small but significant gender differences favoring male teachers in TPACK self-efficacy (d = −0.17), particularly in technological knowledge (d = −0.31) and technological pedagogical knowledge (d = −0.14). However, no significant gender disparities were observed in TPACK performance (d = −0.08). Our findings revealed considerable heterogeneity in these effects across samples, studies, countries, measures, and over time, which could be partly explained by factors such as educational level, country-level gender inequality, and economic development. These results do not support male teachers’ advantage in all aspects of technology-related teaching competencies. Our meta-analytic review further implies that gender disparities in TPACK vary across contexts or over time.

• Siddiq, Fazilat & Murchan, Damian (2025). Towards a code of ethics for using technology-enabled data and related analytic approaches in educational assessment. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice. ISSN 0969-594X. 31(5-6), p. 376–400. doi: 10.1080/0969594X.2025.2453138. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Digital assessment facilitates use of several types of data including log files that record examinees’ digital traces, or process data that, for instance, showcase how test-takers reach an answer. Whereas technical advances in capturing and analysing such data have accelerated, discussions of ethical issues are less evident in the literature. This study aimed to identify vital areas for a code of ethics for using technology-enabled data and related analytical approaches (TEDRAA) in educational assessment. Thematic analysis was applied to established test standards, guidelines and draft legislation developed in response to emerging technology. There was no clear evidence of ethical considerations of TEDRAA in the test standards. Ethical issues in relation to emerging technology are evident in recent guidelines and legislation (OECD, EU), but not yet easily adaptable for educational assessment. We present seven overall dimensions and 33 areas of focus contributing to a potential code of ethics for using TEDRAA.

• Omland, Maren; Hontvedt, Magnus; Siddiq, Fazilat; Amundrud, Anja; Hermansen, Hege & Mathisen, Maiken Andrea Simmersholm [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2025). Co-creation in higher education: a conceptual systematic review. Higher Education. ISSN 0018-1560. doi: 10.1007/s10734-024-01364-1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Co-creation constitutes a novel pedagogical approach for enhancing teaching and learning in higher education. When students and staff collaborate to improve curriculum, pedagogical resources, and the development of students’ roles as peer-mentors or teaching assistants, it has led to increased learning outcomes, more inclusive practices, empowered students, and improved relationships between students and staff. In this conceptual systematic review of 222 research articles, we investigate characteristics of research on co-creation and analyse how the interactions constituting co-creation have been conceptualised. We identified dialogue, positioning, agency, and voice as core concepts describing co-creational interactions. These concepts are highly interconnected and were examined both as products of co-creation and as vital elements for co-creation to be productive. Based on these findings, we developed an analytical framework serving (a) to inform analyses of co-creational interaction and (b) as a model for educators designing co-creational activities. We further contribute to the theoretical underpinning of co-creation by discussing how dialogic theories can inform investigations of co-creational interactions in future research. We argue that there is a range of research questions related to the interactions constituting co-creation that are not sufficiently investigated. We suggest that future research should be directed towards observational studies of these interactions to develop knowledge on how educators can interact inclusively with students, fostering agency and positioning students as significant contributors to educational processes in higher education.

• Adnan, Müge; Tondeur, Jo; Scherer, Ronny & Siddiq, Fazilat (2024). Profiling teacher educators: ready to prepare the next generation for educational technology use? Technology, Pedagogy and Education. ISSN 1475-939X. 33(4), p. 527–544. doi: 10.1080/1475939X.2024.2322481. Full text in Research Archive
• Orset, Ann Karin; Siddiq, Fazilat & Isaksen, Karl Robert (2024). Universitets- og høgskolepedagogiske basiskurs – «hvor er vi, og hvor vil vi?». In Husebø, Dag; Ferguson, Leila Eve; Stalheim, Odd Rune; Erikson, Inger Carin; Isaksen, Karl Robert; Mavroudi, Anna & Wallin, Patric (Ed.), Det universitets- og høgskolepedagogiske vitenskapsområdet i Norge : fremvekst, grunnlagstenkning og "state of the art". Cappelen Damm Akademisk. ISSN 9788202860790. p. 145–176. doi: 10.23865/cdf.225.ch7. Full text in Research Archive
• Standal, Øyvind; Cruaud, Caroline; Siddiq, Fazilat & Steen-Utheim, Anna Therese (2024). Kva vi snakkar om når vi snakkar om studentaktiv læring. Ein konseptuell systematisk litteraturgjennomgang. In Husebø, Dag; Ferguson, Leila Eve; Stalheim, Odd Rune; Erikson, Inger Carin; Isaksen, Karl Robert; Mavroudi, Anna & Wallin, Patric (Ed.), Det universitets- og høgskolepedagogiske vitenskapsområdet i Norge : fremvekst, grunnlagstenkning og "state of the art". Cappelen Damm Akademisk. ISSN 9788202860790. p. 263–284. doi: 10.23865/cdf.225. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  During the last decade, the concept student active learning has gained increased attention in Norwegian higher education. In the international research literature, active learning is contrasted with lectures as an example of passive learning. Moreover, many pedagogical approaches (e.g., flipped classroom, teambased learning) and methods (e.g., case, problem-solving tasks) are elevated, since they should enable student activity. Given this diversity, we present a conceptual systematic review focusing on student active learning in empirical research in Norwegian higher education. We aim at identifying how student active learning is defined, what the underlying theoretical frameworks are, and what characterizes the interventions within this research. Following a systematic approach, 33 studies were included. Overall, our results show that student active learning is most often used as an umbrella term, operationalized through a diversity of teaching and learning activities, and pedagogical approaches. In addition, the literature builds on a range of theoretical underpinnings mostly within the social constructivist learning-theory domain. Surprisingly, there is a lack of consistency between the use of the concept operationalisation through intervention and the underlying theoretical lens used to comprehend the study outcomes. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

• Ferguson, Leila Eve; Ludvigsen, Kristine; Luimes, Maike & Siddiq, Fazilat (2024). UH-institusjoners arbeid med forskning på egen praksis: en casestudie. In Husebø, Dag; Ferguson, Leila Eve; Stalheim, Odd Rune; Erikson, Inger Carin; Isaksen, Karl Robert; Mavroudi, Anna & Wallin, Patric (Ed.), Det universitets- og høgskolepedagogiske vitenskapsområdet i Norge : fremvekst, grunnlagstenkning og "state of the art". Cappelen Damm Akademisk. ISSN 9788202860790. p. 215–238. doi: 10.23865/cdf.225.ch9. Full text in Research Archive
• Scherer, Ronny; Siddiq, Fazilat & Nilsen, Trude (2024). The potential of international large-scale assessments for meta-analyses in education. Large-scale Assessments in Education. 12(1). doi: 10.1186/s40536-024-00191-1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Meta-analyses and international large-scale assessments (ILSA) are key sources for informing educational policy, research, and practice. While many critical research questions could be addressed by drawing evidence from both of these sources, meta- analysts seldom integrate ILSAs, and current integration practices lack methodological guidance. The aim of this methodological review is therefore to synthesize and illus- trate the principles and practices of including ILSA data in meta-analyses. Specifically, we (a) review four ILSA data inclusion approaches (analytic steps, potential, challenges); (b) examine whether and how existing meta-analyses included ILSA data; and (c) provide a hands-on illustrative example of how to implement the four approaches. Seeing the need for meta-analyses on educational inequalities, we situated the review and illustration in the context of gender differences and socioeconomic gaps in stu- dent achievement. Ultimately, we outline the steps meta-analysts could take to utilize the potential and address the challenges of ILSA data for meta-analyses in education.

• Cabellos, Beatriz; Siddiq, Fazilat & Scherer, Ronny (2023). The moderating role of school facilitating conditions and attitudes towards ICT on teachers' ICT use and emphasis on developing students’ digital skills. Computers in Human Behavior. ISSN 0747-5632. 150. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2023.107994. Full text in Research Archive
• Scherer, Ronny; Siddiq, Fazilat; Howard, Sarah K. & Tondeur, Jo (2023). Gender divides in teachers' readiness for online teaching and learning in higher education: Do women and men consider themselves equally prepared? Computers & Education. ISSN 0360-1315. 199, p. 1–16. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104774. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  During the last years, the “Great Online Transition” has brought to light large variation in teachers' readiness for online teaching and learning (OTL). Drawing from an international sample of 731 higher-education teachers, we examined gender differences in OTL readiness as a source of this variation. Currently, in the field of OTL, better evidence is needed to understand the associated dimensions and effects of gender on teachers’ experiences and perceptions of readiness, to provide better support and professional learning opportunities in transitioning to an online and blended practice. To provide such evidence, we first evaluated the measurement bias in the readiness measures and found support for strong gender invariance. Second, we quantified the gender differences in readiness levels: Women reported higher readiness for cognitive activation practices (d = +0.15); men reported higher self-efficacy in technological content knowledge (d = −0.20). These gender differences were small, varied across readiness constructs, and were due to a gender gap in OTL experience. Third, construct associations involving perceived institutional support were weaker for women. To improve the quality, robustness, and validity of the respective evidence, we argue that studying gender divides in OTL readiness needs to consider measurement bias, OTL experience, and construct associations.

• Scherer, Ronny; Siddiq, Fazilat; Howard, Sarah K. & Tondeur, Jo (2023). The more experienced, the better prepared? New evidence on the relation between teachers’ experience and their readiness for online teaching and learning. Computers in Human Behavior. ISSN 0747-5632. 139. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2022.107530. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In the present study, we tested the common assumption that teachers with more experience consider themselves better prepared for online teaching and learning (OTL). Utilizing the data from a survey of 366 higher-education teachers from Portugal at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, we performed structural equation modeling to quantify the experience-readiness relationship. The survey contained an assessment of teachers' OTL readiness which was measured by their perceptions of the institutional support, online teaching presence, and TPACK self-efficacy. In contrast to the linearity assumption “the more experienced, the better prepared”, we found robust evidence for a curvilinear relationship. Teachers’ readiness for OTL increased first and then decreased with more experience—this applied especially to the self-efficacy dimension of readiness. Further analyses suggested that the experience-readiness relationship does not only exist at the level of aggregated constructs but also at the level of indicators, that is, specific areas of knowledge, teaching, and support. We argue that both novice and experienced teachers in higher education could benefit from experience-appropriate, pedagogical, and content-related support programs for OTL.

• Kjølseth, Martha Clabby & Siddiq, Fazilat (2023). A Case Study of International Business students’ Experiences with Exploratory Talk Ground Rules in Online Group Work. Journal of Teaching in International Business. ISSN 0897-5930. 34(3), p. 118–142. doi: 10.1080/08975930.2023.2230367. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study investigates how students experience and describe group work in an online course in international business (IB) after being introduced to Barnes’ exploratory talk ground rules (ETGRs) which promote norms for dialog that encourage participants to share ideas and information and to think together. This study examines the dialog in groups of fourteen IB undergraduates attending a four-week online course in International Management. Initially, the students received briefings about the ETGRs and wrote self-reports throughout the course, on which we conducted a thematic analysis. Our findings show that students who engage with and apply the ETGRs describe more shared responsibility for collaborative learning in the group work, a greater interest in exploring the perspectives of group members, and overall, more positive learning experiences. This implies that making the ETGRs transparent is considered beneficial for social interactions in group work. However, the teacher plays a key role in creating a class environment conducive for collaborative learning, and preconditions for productive group work, including a good assignment structure and proper technology preparation, must be met. The findings and their implications are discussed herein.

• Tondeur, Jo; Howard, Sarah K.; Scherer, Ronny & Siddiq, Fazilat (2023). Untangling the Great Online Transition: A network model of teachers’ experiences with online practices. Computers & Education. ISSN 0360-1315. 203. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2023.104866. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The Covid-19 pandemic provided a critical opportunity to understand how teachers experienced and perceived online practices, as they transitioned to emergency remote teaching. However, how these experiences relate, and how they should be addressed together to support teachers and schools, remains unclear. Therefore, the main aim of the current study is to examine associations among teachers’ experiences and perceptions of online teaching and learning. The data were captured at the beginning of the COVID pandemic in 2020 through an Journal Pre-proof online questionnaire, when teachers were transitioning to emergency remote teaching. Data included in the analysis comprises 222 secondary school teachers' responses to open-ended questions, analysed through a combined method of thematic and network analysis. The results indicate that perceptions and experiences must be studied from a system of variables that interact in determining the success or failure of online teaching and learning. Findings can contribute to decision making about how these variables assemble and relate in different ways to design more targeted support for teachers' future online and blended teaching practices.

• Siddiq, Fazilat; Røkenes, Fredrik Mørk; Lund, Andreas & Scherer, Ronny (2023). New kid on the block? a conceptual systematic review of digital agency. Education and Information Technologies: The Official Journal of the IFIP Technical Committee on Education. ISSN 1360-2357. doi: 10.1007/s10639-023-12038-3. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The digitalisation of education has been emphasised over the last two decades, affecting and developing both the theories and practices of teaching and learning. Considering these developments, the need for addressing teachers’ and students’ digital competence has gained ground. In the last few years, the concept of digital agency has been noted in empirical and theoretical research – broadly focusing on the integration of information and communication technologies (ICT) in educa- tion. Nonetheless, how digital agency is understood and how it relates to the more established concept of digital competence remains unclear. To address this gap, we conducted a conceptual systematic review and examined the current state of the knowledge on digital agency. Specifically, we review the conceptualisations of digital agency, its underlying theoretical frameworks, and how it relates to digital competence and similar concepts. Database searches resulted in 32 publications, with the majority published in education and design journals and stemming from Scandinavian countries. Our findings show that out of 32 studies, only one aimed at defining digital agency explicitly. Nevertheless, for the last three years, digital agency has been more frequently used in the body of literature, emphasising the design and transformation of teaching and learning with technology towards a ‘new normal’ considering the post-pandemic era and lessons learned. Reviewing the ex- tant body of knowledge on digital agency, we review the strengths and weaknesses of the concept and compare it to the more established notion of digital competence. Finally, we discuss implications for policy, research, and practice in education.

• Kravik, Reiar; Berg, Tonje Karoliussen & Siddiq, Fazilat (2022). Teachers’ understanding of programming and computational thinking in primary education – A critical need for professional development. Acta Didactica Norden (ADNO). 16(4). doi: 10.5617/adno.9194. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Programming and computational thinking have (re)gained an increased focus in compulsory education worldwide, consequently demanding teachers of various subjects to engage in the teaching and learning of the two. A recent curriculum reform in Norway emphasised the development of students’ computational skills by integrating programming into four subject domains: mathematics, natural science, music, and arts and crafts. However, these requirements come without a necessary professional development programme and are based on the presumption that all concerned teachers understand the concepts of programming and computational thinking and know how to teach these skills in a sound pedagogical and didactical way. Therefore, this study investigated how teachers understand programming and computational thinking and the relationship between the two concepts. We also investigated the teachers’ approaches to teaching these concepts and their need for further professional development. To address these issues, we conducted semi-structured interviews with eight primary school teachers and thematically analysed the data. Overall, the teachers reported positive attitudes towards the new curriculum and its focus on 21st-century skills, including programming and computational thinking. However, their understanding of these concepts was narrow, focused on only one of the six pertinent subskills: algorithms. Furthermore, the teachers’ teaching approaches were limited. Finally, we observed a variety of professional development processes and practices. The teachers accentuated a critical need for professional development within these domains. Our findings showed that to fulfil the curricular expectations of developing students’ computational thinking skills, increased training of primary school teachers is needed.

• Erstad, Ola Andres & Siddiq, Fazilat (2022). Educational assessment of 21st century skills—novel initiatives, yet a lack of systemic transformation. In Tierney, Rob; Rizvi, Fazal & Ercikan, Kadriye (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Education. Elsevier. ISSN 9780128186305. p. 245–255. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-818630-5.09038-2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Our aim is to discuss critical issues related to educational assessment in contemporary societies, especially of so-called 21st century skills. We introduce some key definitions of 21st century skills, outline international initiatives dedicated to advancing them, and present two examples of national curricular developments emphasizing and integrating these. Next, we present some examples of projects illustrating the interrelationship between assessment, education and technological development. Last, we introduce some perspectives on the assessment and transformation of education that point toward opportunities and pitfalls for the future. Our analysis shows that while there are a number of ongoing initiatives dedicated to developing instruments and curricula for assessment of 21st century skills, there are also fundamental challenges for the development of relevant assessments on a systemic level and for transforming practices related to 21st century skills more broadly. The lack of representation from several parts of the world, in international assessment initiatives on 21st century skills, is also striking. By taking a meta-perspective, we identify evolving themes within this field and provide a critical perspective on these developments. We conclude there are a number of opportunities and pitfalls for creating good synergies between 21st century skills in curricula and practices, as well as for developing assessment strategies.

• Murchan, Damian & Siddiq, Fazilat (2021). A Call to Action: A Systematic Review of Ethical and Regulatory issues in using Process Data in Educational Assessment. Large-scale Assessments in Education. 9(1), p. 1–27. doi: 10.1186/s40536-021-00115-3. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Analysis of user-generated data (for example process data from logfiles, learning analytics, and data mining) in computer-based environments has gained much attention in the last decade and is considered a promising evolving field in learning sciences. In the area of educational assessment, the benefits of such data and how to exploit them are increasingly emphasised. Even though the use of process data in assessment holds significant promise, the ethical and regulatory implications associated with it have not been sufficiently considered. To address this issue and to provide an overview of how ethical and regulatory requirements interface with process data from assessments in primary and secondary education (K-12), we conducted a systematic literature review. Initial results showed that few studies considered ethical, privacy and regulatory issues in K-12 assessment, prompting a widening of the search criteria to include research in higher education also, which identified 22 studies. The literature that was relevant to our research questions represented an approximate balance in the number of theoretical and empirical studies. The studies identified as relevant interpret issues of privacy largely in terms of informed consent and the research pays little attention to ethical and privacy issues in the use of process data in assessment. The implications for the field of educational assessment and the use of process data are discussed. This includes the need to develop a specific code of ethics to govern the use of process- and logfile data in educational assessment.

• Bugge, Markus & Siddiq, Fazilat (2021). Empowering professionalism in mission-oriented innovation. Science and Public Policy. ISSN 0302-3427. 48(3), p. 423–437. doi: 10.1093/scipol/scab020. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In the literature on mission-oriented innovation supply side and tech-oriented approaches have been complemented by broader and more inclusive societal approaches. Here, it is highlighted that both directionality and broad anchoring of diverse stakeholders across private, public, and civic domains are key to successful implementation. Still, it is unclear how these dimensions relate and unfold in practice. Using digital literacy in education as an example of mission-oriented innovation, this paper investigates what prerequisites and capabilities are needed to envision and govern such processes. Based upon a case study of innovative teaching practices in twenty-five classes at ten primary schools in Norway, the paper finds that the motivation, dedication, and engagement of the teachers is not primarily related to the digital technologies themselves, but to the professional and pedagogical anchoring of the digital teaching tools. The mobilization of the professionalism of the teachers is enabled by a process of balanced empowerment.

• Backfisch, Iris; Scherer, Ronny; Siddiq, Fazilat; Lachner, Andreas & Scheiter, Katharina (2021). Teachers' technology use for teaching: Comparing two explanatory mechanisms. Teaching and Teacher Education : An International Journal of Research and Studies. ISSN 0742-051X. 104. doi: 10.1016/j.tate.2021.103390. Full text in Research Archive
• Scherer, Ronny; Siddiq, Fazilat & Sánchez-Scherer, Bárbara (2021). Some Evidence on the Cognitive Benefits of Learning to Code. Frontiers in Psychology. 12. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.559424. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Computer coding—an activity that involves the creation, modification, and implementation of computer code and exposes students to computational thinking—is an integral part of today's education in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) (Grover and Pea, 2013). As technology is advancing, coding is becoming a necessary process and much-needed skill to solve complex scientific problems efficiently and reproducibly, ultimately elevating the careers of those who master the skill. With many countries around the world launching coding initiatives and integrating computational thinking into the curricula of higher education, secondary education, primary education, and kindergarten, the question arises, what lies behind this enthusiasm for learning to code? Part of the reasoning is that learning to code may ultimately aid students' learning and acquiring of skills in domains other than coding. Researchers, policy-makers, and leaders in the field of computer science and education have made ample use of this argument to attract students into computer science, bring to attention the need for skilled programmers, and make coding compulsory for students. Bill Gates once stated that “[l]earning to write programs stretches your mind, and helps you think better, creates a way of thinking about things that I think is helpful in all domains” (2013). Similar to the claims surrounding chess instruction, learning Latin, video gaming, and brain training (Sala and Gobet, 2017), this so-called “transfer effect” assumes that students learn a set of skills during coding instruction that are also relevant for solving problems in mathematics, science, and other contexts. Despite this assumption and the claims surrounding transfer effects, the evidence backing them seems to stand on shaky legs—a recently published paper even claimed that such evidence does not exist at all (Denning, 2017), yet without reviewing the extant body of empirical studies on the matter. Moreover, simply teaching coding does not ensure that students are able to transfer the knowledge and skills they have gained to other situations and contexts—in fact, instruction needs to be designed for fostering this transfer (Grover and Pea, 2018). In this opinion paper, we (a) argue that learning to code involves thinking processes similar to those in other domains, such as mathematical modeling and creative problem solving, (b) highlight the empirical evidence on the cognitive benefits of learning computer coding that has bearing on this long-standing debate, and (c) describe several criteria for documenting these benefits (i.e., transfer effects). Despite the positive evidence suggesting that these benefits may exist, we argue that the transfer debate has not yet to be settled.

• Siddiq, Fazilat; Gochyyev, Perman & Valls, Ona (2020). The role of engagement and academic behavioral skills on young students’ academic performance — A validation across four countries. Studies in Educational Evaluation. ISSN 0191-491X. 66. doi: 10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100880. Full text in Research Archive
• Scherer, Ronny; Siddiq, Fazilat & Viveros, Bárbara Sánchez (2020). A meta-analysis of teaching and learning computer programming: Effective instructional approaches and conditions. Computers in Human Behavior. ISSN 0747-5632. 109, p. 1–18. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2020.106349. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This meta-analysis maps the evidence on the effectiveness of instructional approaches and conditions for learning computer programming under three study conditions: (a) Studies focusing on the effectiveness of programming interventions per se, (b) studies focusing on the effectiveness of visualization and physicality, and (c) studies focusing on the effectiveness of dominant instructional approaches. Utilizing the data from 139 interventions and 375 effect sizes, we found (a) a strong effect of learning computer programming per se (Hedges’g  = 0.81, 95% CI [0.42, 1.21]), (b) moderate to large effect sizes of visualization (g = 0.44, 95% CI [0.29, 0.58]) and physicality interventions (g = 0.72, 95% CI [0.23, 1.21]), and (c) moderate to large effect sizes for studies focusing on dominant instructional approaches (s = 0.49–1.02). Moderator analyses indicated that the effect sizes differed only marginally between the instructional approaches and conditions—however, collaboration in metacognition instruction, problem solving instruction outside of regular lessons, short-term interventions focusing on physicality, and interventions focusing on visualization through Scratch were especially effective. Our meta-analysis synthesizes the existing research evidence on the effectiveness of computer programming instruction and, ultimately, provides references with which the effects of future studies could be compared.

• Scherer, Ronny; Howard, Sarah K.; Tondeur, Jo & Siddiq, Fazilat (2020). Profiling Teachers' Readiness for Online Teaching and Learning in Higher Education: Who's Ready? Computers in Human Behavior. ISSN 0747-5632. 118. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2020.106675. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The COVID-19 pandemic has forced a shift to online teaching and learning (OTL) in colleges and universities across the globe, requiring teachers to adapt their teaching in a very short time—independent of whether they were prepared. Drawing from an international sample of N = 739 higher education teachers in 58 countries, the present study sheds light on teachers' readiness for OTL at the time of the pandemic by (a) identifying teacher profiles based on a set of key dimensions of readiness; (b) explaining profile membership by individual teacher characteristics, contextual aspects of the shift to OTL, and country-level indicators representing educational innovation and cultural orientation. We conducted latent profile analysis and identified three teacher profiles with consistently high or low readiness or an inconsistent readiness profile—hence, teachers in higher education are not a homogeneous group. Importantly, key individual and contextual variables, such as teachers’ gender and prior OTL experience, the context of the OTL shift, the innovation potential in education, and cultural orientation, explained profile membership. We discuss these findings with respect to the nature of the profiles, how they can be understood with respect to key determinants, and their implications for OTL in higher education.

• Lucas, Margarida; Bem-Haja, Pedro; Siddiq, Fazilat; Moreira, António & Redecker, Christine (2020). The relation between in-service teachers’ digital competence and personal and contextual factors: What matters most? Computers & Education. ISSN 0360-1315. 160. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104052. Full text in Research Archive
• Howard, Sarah K.; Tondeur, Jo; Siddiq, Fazilat & Scherer, Ronny (2020). Ready, set, go! Profiling teachers' readiness for online teaching in secondary education. Technology, Pedagogy and Education. ISSN 1475-939X. doi: 10.1080/1475939X.2020.1839543. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In a very short time, secondary school education across the globe transitioned to online learning and teaching, in response to the Covid-19 pandemic. This study aims at identifying teacher profiles in secondary education to better understand perceptions of both individual and institutional readiness to transition to online teaching. To do this, the current study grouped teachers on the basis of their TPACK self-efficacy beliefs, online presence and perceived institutional support for online teaching. To date, data have been collected from teachers (N = 222) from 20 countries. The data were submitted to latent profile analysis to identify readiness profiles. The added value of the current study lies in the combined view of individual and institutional readiness and the uniqueness of the dataset. It provides a large-scale international perspective and a wide range of possible experiences. Findings inform how education institutions can personalise and support transitions to online teaching.

• Scherer, Ronny; Siddiq, Fazilat & Tondeur, Jo (2020). All the same or different? Revisiting measures of teachers' technology acceptance. Computers & Education. ISSN 0360-1315. 143. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103656. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Technology acceptance has been widely discussed and examined in educational contexts. Despite the variety of models and measures describing teachers' technology acceptance, two key assumptions persist in the existing body of literature: First, the technology acceptance construct can be represented by a set of diverse, yet correlated attitudes and beliefs. Second, the effects of technology acceptance on the intentions to use technology and technology use—two commonly studied outcome variables—follow a cascade. The existing evidence backing these assumptions is, however, diverse, as the considerable between-study variation in the relations between the technology acceptance and outcome variables shows. This variation remained largely unexplained, and the present study offers an explanation from the perspective of construct validity. Analyzing a large meta-analytic sample (N = 37211 teachers) obtained from a previous meta-analysis, we synthesized the correlations among measures of teachers' technology acceptance and found support for the existence of a common trait that underlies all technology acceptance variables. This finding remained even after distinguishing between different teacher samples (i.e., pre-vs. in-service teachers) and types of technology (i.e., technology in general vs. specific technologies). There was no convincing evidence for the hypothesized cascade of effects, due to a weak and insignificant link between usage intentions and technology use. Our findings provide evidence for the representation of teachers' technology acceptance as a single latent variable and consequently offer a way to describe its relations to usage intentions and technology use without compromising the validity of the inferences drawn from them.

• Siddiq, Fazilat & Scherer, Ronny (2019). Is there a gender gap? A meta-analysis of the gender differences in students' ICT literacy. Educational Research Review. ISSN 1747-938X. 27, p. 205–217. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2019.03.007. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The study of gender differences in academic achievement has been one of the core topics in education, especially because it may uncover possible gaps and inequalities in certain domains. Whereas these differences have largely been examined in traditional domains, such as mathematics, reading, and science, the existing body of empirical studies in the domain of ICT literacy is considerably smaller, yet abounds in diverse findings. One of the persistent findings however is that boys consider their ICT literacy to be higher than that of girls. This meta-analysis tests whether the same pattern holds for students’ actual performance on ICT literacy tasks, as measured by performance-based assessments. In total, 46 effect sizes were extracted from 23 empirical studies using a random-effects model. Overall, the gender differences in ICT literacy were significant, positive, and favored girls (g = + 0.12, 95 % CI = [0.08, 0.16]). This effect varied between studies, and moderation analyses indicated that the grade level students were taught at moderated its magnitude—effect sizes were larger in primary school as compared to secondary school. In conclusion, our findings contrast those obtained from previous meta-analyses that were based on self-reported ICT literacy and suggest that the ICT gender gap may not be as severe as it had been claimed to be.

• Tondeur, Jo; Scherer, Ronny; Siddiq, Fazilat & Baran, Evrim (2019). Enhancing pre-service teachers’ technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK): a mixed-method study. Educational Technology Research and Development. ISSN 1042-1629. doi: 10.1007/s11423-019-09692-1. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The main aim of this two-step mixed-method study was to explore the effectiveness of the strategies used to prepare pre-service teachers for technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). Specifically, we focused on the strategies included in the synthesis of qualitative evidence (SQD) model: (1) using teacher educators as role models, (2) reflecting on the role of technology in education, (3) learning how to use technology by design, (4) collaboration with peers, (5) scaffolding authentic technology experiences, and (6) providing continuous feedback. To explore the relation between the perceived occurrences of the SQD-strategies and TPACK (controlled for pre-service teachers’ general attitudes towards technology), survey data were collected from a sample of 688 final-year pre-service teachers in Belgium. In a next step, 16 telephone interviews and 6 in-depth interviews were conducted to gain a more in-depth insight into the nature of the 6 strategies and their influences on TPACK. The quantitative analyses indicated positive correlations between the SQD-strategies and TPACK, controlled for general attitudes towards technology. The findings from the qualitative analyses showed that teachers acknowledged the importance of the six strategies. However, the respondents emphasized that some of the six strategies are often underutilized. Based on the quantitative and qualitative results, the discussion provides recommendations to improve the potential of pre-service training to enhance future teachers’ TPACK.

• Tondeur, Jo; Scherer, Ronny; Baran, Evrim; Siddiq, Fazilat; Valtonen, Teemu & Sointu, Erkko (2019). Teacher educators as gatekeepers: Preparing the next generation of teachers for technology integration in education. British Journal of Educational Technology (BJET). ISSN 0007-1013. 50(3), p. 1189–1209. doi: 10.1111/bjet.12748. Full text in Research Archive
• Scherer, Ronny; Siddiq, Fazilat & Viveros, Bárbara Sánchez (2019). The Cognitive Benefits of Learning Computer Programming: A Meta-Analysis of Transfer Effects. Journal of Educational Psychology. ISSN 0022-0663. 111(5), p. 764–792. doi: 10.1037/edu0000314. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Does computer programming teach students how to think? Learning to program computers has gained considerable popularity, and educational systems around the world are encouraging students in schools and even children in kindergartens to engage in programming activities. This popularity is based on the claim that learning computer programming improves cognitive skills, including creativity, reasoning, and mathematical skills. In this meta-analysis, we tested this claim performing a 3-level, random-effects meta-analysis on a sample of 105 studies and 539 effect sizes. We found evidence for a moderate, overall transfer effect (g = 0.49, 95% CI [0.37, 0.61]) and identified a strong effect for near transfer (g = 0.75, 95% CI [0.39, 1.11]) and a moderate effect for far transfer (g = 0.47, 95% CI [0.35, 0.59]). Positive transfer to situations that required creative thinking, mathematical skills, and metacognition, followed by spatial skills and reasoning existed. School achievement and literacy, however, benefited the least from learning to program. Moderator analyses revealed significantly larger transfer effects for studies with untreated control groups than those with treated (active) control groups. Moreover, published studies exhibited larger effects than gray literature. These findings shed light on the cognitive benefits associated with learning computer programming and contribute to the current debate surrounding the conceptualization of computer programming as a form of problem solving. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved)

• Scherer, Ronny; Siddiq, Fazilat & Tondeur, Jo (2019). The technology acceptance model (TAM): A meta-analytic structural equation modeling approach to explaining teachers’ adoption of digital technology in education. Computers & Education. ISSN 0360-1315. 128, p. 13–35. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.009. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The extent to which teachers adopt technology in their teaching practice has long been in the focus of research. Indeed, a plethora of models exist explaining influential factors and mechanisms of technology use in classrooms, one of which—the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and versions thereof—has dominated the field. Although consensus exists about which factors in the TAM might predict teachers’ technology adoption, the current field abounds in some controversies and inconsistent findings. This meta-analysis seeks to clarify some of these issues by combining meta-analysis with structural equation modeling approaches. Specifically, we synthesized 124 correlation matrices from 114 empirical TAM studies (N = 34,357 teachers) and tested the fit of the TAM and its versions. Overall, the TAM explains technology acceptance well; yet, the role of certain key constructs and the importance of external variables contrast some existing beliefs about the TAM. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

• Scherer, Ronny & Siddiq, Fazilat (2019). The relation between students' socioeconomic status and ICT literacy: Findings from a meta-analysis. Computers & Education. ISSN 0360-1315. 138, p. 13–32. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.04.011. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This meta-analysis synthesized the relation between measures of socioeconomic status (SES) and students' information and communication technology (ICT) literacy—a skillset that has found its way in educational curricula. Using three-level random-effects modeling across 32 independent K-12 student samples that provided 75 correlation coefficients, we identified a positive, significant, and small correlation, = 0.214, 95% CI [0.184, 0.244]. This correlation varied between studies and was moderated by the type of SES measure, the type of ICT literacy assessment, the broad categories of ICT skills assessed, the assessment of test fairness, and the sampling procedure employed. The findings of this meta-analysis suggest that students’ ICT literacy differs between socioeconomic status groups, thus pointing to a gap in the domain of ICT. However, the relation between SES and ICT literacy was weaker than those reported in other educational domains, such as mathematics and reading. Carefully designed studies and measures for which a validity argument has been crafted are needed when studying achievement gaps in the domain of ICT in future studies.

• Scherer, Ronny; Tondeur, Jo; Siddiq, Fazilat & Baran, Evrim (2018). The importance of attitudes toward technology for pre-service teachers' technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge: Comparing structural equation modeling approaches. Computers in Human Behavior. ISSN 0747-5632. 80, p. 67–80. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.11.003. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  A large body of literature suggests that attitudes toward technology and its educational use are important determinants of technology acceptance and integration in classrooms. At the same time, teachers' Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) facilitates the meaningful use of technology for educational purposes. Overall, attitudes toward technology and TPACK play a critical role for technology integration and have been in the focus of many empirical studies. Albeit the attention that has been paid to these two concepts, their relation has not been fully understood. The present study contributes to the advancement of this understanding by examining the relations between three core technology attitudes (i.e., general attitudes towards ICT, attitudes towards ICT in education, and ease of use) and TPACK self-efficacy beliefs, based on a sample of N = 688 Flemish pre-service teachers in 18 teacher-training institutions. Using a variety of structural equation modeling approaches, we describe the TPACK-attitudes relations from multiple perspectives and present a substantive-methodological synergism. The analyses revealed that the attitudes toward technology and TPACK self-beliefs were positively related; yet, differences across the attitudes and TPACK dimensions existed, pointing to the delineation of general and educational perspectives on the use of ICT.

• Siddiq, Fazilat (2018). A Comparison Between Digital Competence in Two Nordic Countries' National Curricula and an International Framework: Inspecting their Readiness for 21st Century Education. Seminar.net - Media, technology and lifelong learning. 14(2), p. 144–159. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study investigates the objectives and competence aims in the digital competence curricula of two Nordic countries for compulsory education and an international framework, DIGCOMP. The main aim of the study is to analyze the visions and main features of the Norwegian and Swedish national curricula, and inspect the extent to which they align with the DIGCOMP framework. The results show that the underlying visions and objectives of the frameworks largely converge. However, there are large discrepancies between the national curricula and DIGCOMP regarding the structure, the content covered (e.g., competence aims) and the instructional aspects. The findings and their implications for researchers, policy makers and curriculum developers are discussed.

• Siddiq, Fazilat; Gochyyev, Perman & Wilson, Mark (2017). Learning in Digital Networks ? ICT literacy: A novel assessment of students' 21st century skills. Computers & Education. ISSN 0360-1315. 109, p. 11–37. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2017.01.014. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The present investigation aims to fill some of the gaps revealed in the literature regarding the limited access to more advanced and novel assessment instruments for measuring students' ICT literacy. In particular, this study outlines the adaption, further development, and validation of the Learning in Digital Networks-ICT literacy (LDN-ICT) test. The LDN-ICT test comprises an online performance-based assessment in which real-time student-student collaboration is facilitated through two different platforms (i.e., Google-Docs and chat). The test attempts to measure students' ability in handling digital information, to communicate and collaborate during problem solving. The data are derived from 144 students in grade 9 analyzed using item response theory models (unidimensional and multidimensional Rasch models). The appropriateness of the models was evaluated by examining the item fit statistics. To gather validity evidence for the test, we investigated the differential item functioning of the individual items and correlations with other constructs (e.g., self-efficacy, collective efficacy, perceived usefulness and academic aspirations). Our results supported the hypothesized structure of LDN-ICT as comprising four dimensions. No significant differences across gender groups were identified. In support of existing research, we found positive relations to self-efficacy, academic aspirations, and socio-economic background. In sum, our results provide evidence for the reliability and validity of the test. Further refinements and the future use of the test are discussed.

• Scherer, Ronny; Tondeur, Jo & Siddiq, Fazilat (2017). On the quest for validity: Testing the factor structure and measurement invariance of the technology-dimensions in the Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) model. Computers & Education. ISSN 0360-1315. 112, p. 1–17. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2017.04.012. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework – a framework which proposes a set of knowledge domains that are essential for effective teaching with technology – has gained considerable attention in the domain of education and technology. With the efforts to conceptualize these knowledge domains comes the question to what extent they can be distinguished empirically. Hence, the present study examines a measure that assesses pre-service teachers' self-efficacy in the technology-related TPACK dimensions (“T-dimensions”). In pursuit of crafting a validity argument, we investigated its factor structure and tested it for measurement invariance across gender and educational tracks, two subgroups that may indicate considerable differences. By means of multi-group confirmatory factor analysis, the data of N = 665 pre-service teachers in 18 teacher training institutions in Flanders (Belgium) revealed a nested factor structure of the TPACK measure, which comprised a general factor and a specific factor of pre-service teachers’ technological knowledge. This factor structure was fully invariant across gender and educational tracks. Mean differences between educational tracks did not occur; yet, substantial differences were found across gender in favor of male pre-service teachers. This study sheds light on critical aspects of crafting a validity argument for the measurement of the T-dimensions in the TPACK framework and reports relevant subgroup differences.

• Tondeur, Jo; Scherer, Ronny; Siddiq, Fazilat & Baran, Evrim (2017). A comprehensive investigation of TPACK within pre-service teachers' ICT profiles: Mind the gap! Australasian Journal of Educational Technology (AJET). ISSN 1449-3098. 33(3), p. 46–60. doi: 10.14742/ajet.3504. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study aims to identify profiles of pre-service teachers in order to explore their readiness to integrate technology in education. The assumption is that pre-service teacher characteristics such as technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK), go together with the influence of their teacher training. Specifically, this study examines whether pre-service teachers can be clustered on the basis of their TPACK, a typical set of ICT-related characteristics (e.g., general ICT attitudes, attitudes towards ICT in education, ease of use, ICT self-efficacy), and the perceived support at their training institution to adequately integrate ICT in education. Data were collected from a sample of 688 last-year pre-service teachers in 18 teacher training institutions in Flanders (the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium). Using correlational and latent profile analysis, the results suggest that: (1) two profiles can be distinguished, (2) TPACK and other individual ICT-related characteristics are positively correlated, and (3) pre-service teachers in a profile with strong TPACK, attitudes, and self-efficacy scores also report high scores on the support they perceive at their teacher training institution. Implications for the role of teacher training institutions are discussed with a specific focus on how to close the gap between the two identified profiles.

• Scherer, Ronny & Siddiq, Fazilat (2017). Revealing the processes of students' interaction with a novel collaborative problem solving task: An in-depth analysis of think-aloud protocols. Computers in Human Behavior. ISSN 0747-5632. 76, p. 509–525. doi: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.08.007. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Collaborative problem solving (ColPS) skills are considered crucial to succeed in work, education, and life in a knowledge-rich society. Nevertheless, research on the assessment of ColPS is at its initial stage; specifically, assessments of synchronous student-student ColPS in digital environments have been scarcely investigated, and there is an ample need for valid and reliable assessments to measure ColPS. The present study attempts to fill this gap by proposing a novel ColPS task and investigating students' ColPS skills with the help of think-aloud protocols while they were taking an online performance-based test. The task was developed on the basis of a ColPS framework, and principles emphasized in the research literature on students’ interaction, collaboration, and problem solving were implemented. A real-world problem mimicking a common teaching and learning situation formed the context of this task. The empirical evidence obtained from the think-aloud protocols of eleven Norwegian students displayed the strengths and weaknesses of the task, and strengthened the feasibility to assess ColPS. Implications for the future design of ColPS tasks are discussed.

• Tondeur, Jo; Braak, Johan van; Siddiq, Fazilat & Scherer, Ronny (2016). Time for a new approach to prepare future teachers for educational technology use: Its meaning and measurement. Computers & Education. ISSN 0360-1315. 94, p. 134–150. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2015.11.009. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat; Scherer, Ronny & Tondeur, Jo (2016). Teachers' emphasis on developing students' digital information and communication skills (TEDDICS): A new construct in 21st century education. Computers & Education. ISSN 0360-1315. 92-93, p. 1–14. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2015.10.006. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat & Scherer, Ronny (2016). The relation between teachers’ emphasis on the development of students’ digital information and communication skills and computer self-efficacy: the moderating roles of age and gender. Large-scale Assessments in Education. 4. doi: 10.1186/s40536-016-0032-4. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Teachers’ integration of information and communication technology (ICT) has been widely studied, given that digital competence is considered to be a crucial outcome of twenty first century education. In this context, research highlighted teachers’ computer self-efficacy (CSE) as one of the most important determinants of their ICT integration into teaching practices. Whereas previous research mainly focused on the relation between CSE and ICT integration from a frequency-based point of view, recent research suggests to investigate this relation using more qualitative measures of ICT integration such as the degree to which teachers emphasize developing students’ digital information and communication skills (TEDDICS). Consequently, the present study investigates the relations between these two constructs: teachers’ emphasis on developing students’ digital skills and their computer self-efficacy, taking into account the moderating roles of age and gender. We used a representative sample of 1071 Norwegian secondary school teachers who participated in the international computer and information literacy study (ICILS) in 2013. Our results provide evidence on the positive relation between CSE and TEDDICS. Furthermore, age positively moderated this relation between some factors of the two constructs, indicating that computer self-efficacy plays an even more important role for teachers of higher age in the context of emphasizing ICT skills in classrooms. The unique effect of gender was present for one correlation between CSE and TEDDICS, indicating that moderation by gender was apparent to a limited extent, and related to use of computers for instructional purposes. The interaction between age and gender did not reveal significant moderation effects. We discuss these results in light of the potential consequences for teacher training.

• Siddiq, Fazilat; Hatlevik, Ove Edvard; Olsen, Rolf Vegar; Throndsen, Inger & Scherer, Ronny (2016). Taking a future perspective by learning from the past - A systematic review of assessment instruments that aim to measure primary and secondary school students' ICT literacy. Educational Research Review. ISSN 1747-938X. 19, p. 58–84. doi: 10.1016/j.edurev.2016.05.002. Full text in Research Archive
• Scherer, Ronny & Siddiq, Fazilat (2015). The Big-Fish-Little-Pond-Effect revisited: Do different types of assessments matter? Computers & Education. ISSN 0360-1315. 80, p. 198–210. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2014.09.003. Full text in Research Archive

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• Siddiq, Fazilat & Berg, Tonje Karoliussen (2024). Algoritmisk tenkning og samarbeidslæring. Gyldendal Norsk Forlag A/S. ISBN 9788205598928. 150 p. Full text in Research Archive
• Berg, Tonje Karoliussen & Siddiq, Fazilat (2024). Algoritmisk tenkning og samarbeidslæring. Hvordan jobbe med programmering i skolen. Gyldendal Akademisk. ISBN 9788205598928. 150 p. Full text in Research Archive

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• Siddiq, Fazilat & Cruaud, Caroline (2026). Teachers' Use of Digital Resources in Education: A Step Towards Agency, Inclusive Education and Transformation? ECER KONFERANSE 2026 TAMPERE FINLAND. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The integration and use of technology in education have been at the forefront and highly discussed for more than two decades. Oftentimes, these discussions are led by several stakeholders (e.g., policymakers, researchers, teachers, students, parents) holding strong opinions – yet on a diverse array. Moreover, their diverse experiences, attitudes and knowledge have led to a public debate echoing two main sides – those supporting increased access and use of technology in education and those against it (Siddiq & Scherer, 2025). However, most actors working in and with schools agree that a more balanced approach is needed when considering what role technology should have in education – emphasizing teachers as critical in this endeavor (Siddiq & Scherer, 2025). Further, across time several aspects have changed and keep changing, such as the technology itself and the access to it (Erstad & Siddiq, 2023), educational policy, curricula, and teachers’ attitudes, knowledge and competence to use technology for teaching and learning (Howard et al., 2020). Also, the focus on teachers’ digital literacy and professional development programs to support and develop such competences has received widespread attention. In Norway and other northern countries this is evident through for example the massive governmental programs for teacher education. Along these lines, access to open educational resources (OER) has increased, and been encouraged as a useful tool in providing inclusivity in education. OER are defined as “learning, teaching and research materials in any format and medium that reside in the public domain or are under copyright that have been released under an open license, that permit no-cost access, re-use, re-purpose, adaptation and redistribution by others” (UNESCO, 2019). Thus, OER come with an open license and grants others the rights to access, re-use, adapt, modify, repurpose, and redistribute. Research has shown that OER can support the diverse needs of individual learners, promote gender equality and incentivize innovative pedagogical, didactical and methodological approaches (Bossu et al., 2012; Farrow et al., 2024). However, previous studies show that teachers lack knowledge of OER and simply confuse OER with digital resources in general (Baas et al., 2019). The EQui-T (European quality development system for inclusive education and teacher training) project, supported under the Erasmus+ teacher academies program aims at enhancing high quality teaching in an inclusive European context. This research employ data from EQuiT-project and investigate teachers’ understanding of OER, and the reasoning behind why they use OER and/or digital learning resources, addressing the research questions: RQ.1 How do primary and secondary school teachers understand the concept of OER? RQ.2 What reasons do primary and secondary school teachers provide for using digital resources for teaching and learning? We use the OER definition as point of departure along with the SAMR-framework (Romrell et al., 2014). The SAMR model presents strategies for classroom technology implementation at four stages including: substitution, augmentation, modification, and redefinition. While the first two levels, substitution and augmentation (technology acts as a direct substitute, with functional improvement) present a simple use of technology in pedagogical practice, e.g., simply replacing traditional materials with digital ones, the next two stages add an advancement in terms of technology integration. These are modification (technology allows for significant task redesign) and redefinition (technology allows for the creation of new tasks, previously inconceivable). Classrooms in which this kind of mastery is embedded are more novel and show immersive uses for technology, e.g., they create and publish own work across multiple forms of media and technology. We use the OER definition and the SAMR model as our underlying theoretical framework to investigate to which extent the teachers’ explanations and reflections in the interviews align with these respectively.

• Røkenes, Fredrik Mørk; Khan, Junaid M. & Siddiq, Fazilat (2025). Hvordan bruke kunstig intelligens i undervisningen din? Workshop 2 ved det samfunnsvitenskapelige fakultet. Full text in Research Archive
• Røkenes, Fredrik Mørk; Khan, Junaid M.; Whiting, Matthew Rix; Siddiq, Fazilat & Bailey, Kennedy Michele (2025). Hvordan bruke kunstig intelligens i undervisningen din? Workshop ved det samfunnsvitenskapelige fakultet. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat & Scherer, Ronny (2025). Learner's Screen Use: Time to Reload the Debate. Nordic Journal of Digital Literacy. p. 35–39. doi: 10.18261/njdl.20.1.6. Full text in Research Archive
• Halverson, Sandra Louise; Afdal, Hilde Wågsås; Siddiq, Fazilat & Velden, Maja Van Der (2024). Argumenter mot akademisk boikott — kjente grep med lite hold. Khrono. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat; Berg, Tonje Karoliussen; Haraldsrud, Andreas; Scherer, Ronny; åsgård, ellen & Erstad, Ola [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Algoritmisk tenkning og samarbeidslæring - hvordan jobbe med programmering i skolen. In Berg, Tonje Karoliussen & Siddiq, Fazilat (Ed.), Algoritmisk tenkning og samarbeidslæring. Hvordan jobbe med programmering i skolen. Gyldendal Akademisk. ISSN 9788205598928. Full text in Research Archive
• Farstad, Eli Morken; Gils, Bieke & Siddiq, Fazilat (2024). Tydelig, Kravik? p. 43–43. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat; Tondeur, Jo; Howard, Sarah K. & Scherer, Ronny (2023). New methods, new insights: Making sense of teachers' experiences with online education. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The Covid-19 pandemic provided a unique opportunity to understand school teachers' perceptions of and experiences with online practices on a large scale. However, there is a need for a more detailed understanding of the multiple associations among teachers’ perceptions and experiences in change processes. Therefore, the main goal of the current study is to untangle the complexity of teachers' experiences and perceptions during this great online transition. Based on the data of 222 teachers' responses to open-ended questions, we used a combined method of thematic and network analysis. To illustrate this novel method, we will focus on the strongest associations between the categories “learning design for online teaching” and “Student learning”. The results indicated for instance a strong association between ‘Self-paced’, which was a dimension of ‘learning design’, and ‘Flexibility’, which was discussed in relation to ‘student experience’. During the presentation the authors will provide more examples of the associations between teachers’ online experiences and perceptions. They will also demonstrate how the network model together with the thematic analysis can be used as a 'roadmap' towards a more integrated approach of online and blended learning in schools and to guide future professional development efforts and school policies.

• Cruaud, Caroline & Siddiq, Fazilat (2023). FoU på egen undervisning: hvordan tilby effektiv og god veiledning til faglig ansatte? Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  De siste årene har det vært økt fokus på undervisning i høyere utdanning (UH), blant annet gjennom forventninger om å løfte undervisningskvalitet og forskningsbasert undervisning (Meld. St. 16, 2016-2017). I den forbindelse har blant annet forskning på egen praksis blitt fremhevet som en måte å jobbe mer systematisk med utdanningskvalitet på. Ved Universitetet i Sørøst-Norge ble prosjektet Forskning på og Utvikling av egen Virksomhet for Utdanningskvalitet (FUVU) initiert i 2019 som et lav-terskel tilbud. FUVU har som formål å støtte de faglig ansatte i å utvikle og forske på sin egen undervisning, veiledning og praksis. Igjennom FUVU tilbyr vi en webinar-rekke med fokus på ulike faser i FoU-arbeid – noe som har blitt godt tatt imot. Vi erfarer nå at deltakerne har også behov for veiledning. Vi vurderer derfor å tilby veiledning som kan hjelpe den enkelte videre i sitt prosjekt, men samtidig ikke blir for krevende for deltakeren eller oss som støtteenhet. Dette bidraget vil diskutere ulike måter å tilrettelegge for veiledning i tverrfaglige grupper med hensyn til erfaring, fagdisiplin og pedagogisk fokus på prosjekt. Kritisk venn og/eller kollegaveiledning igjennom for eksempel kollektiv akademisk veiledning kan være potensielle veier å gå. Vi vil presentere FUVU-tilbudet ved Universitetet i Sørøst-Norge, dele erfaringer, og åpne for diskusjon og innspill rundt denne høyst-aktuelle tematikken som berører UH-sektoren nasjonalt og internasjonalt.

• Siddiq, Fazilat; Olofsson, Anders D.; Lindberg, Ola J. & Tomczyk, Lukasz (2023). What will be the new normal? Digital competence and 21st-century skills: critical and emergent issues in education. Education and Information Technologies: The Official Journal of the IFIP Technical Committee on Education. ISSN 1360-2357. doi: 10.1007/s10639-023-12067-y. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat & Murchan, Damian (2023). Towards ethical standards for employing user-generated data in educational assessment. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Educational assessment has evolved profoundly during the last decade and keeps developing due to the increased potential enabled by new technologies. In particular, computer-based assessments can generate process data that record examinees’ digital traces. In other words, such data can potentially provide information not only about students’ competences (correct/in-correct answers or quality of responses) but also their behavior (how they respond and come to the solution). Whereas advances in analyzing such data accelerate (aided, for example, by learning analytics, machine learning, artificial intelligence/AI), ethical and legal concerns persist. This study relates the paucity of information about ethics in user-generated data in educational measurement to existing test standards that have, in part, become outdated. We conducted reviews of six widely used test standards internationally to investigate to what extent they target issues related to ethics in utilizing user-generated data. These standards acknowledge ethical issues in assessment; however, they do not address user-generated data in assessment and ethics. Consequently, we also reviewed and analyzed ethical codes and frameworks developed within the wider field of user-generated data (process data, learning analytics, AI, etc). Thematic analysis was applied to propose a draft code of ethics for including user-generated data in educational assessment.

• Siddiq, Fazilat; Olofsson, Anders D.; Lindberg, J. Ola & Tomczyk, Lukasz (2023). Special issue: What will be the new normal? Digital competence and 21st-century skills: critical and emergent issues in education. Education and Information Technologies: The Official Journal of the IFIP Technical Committee on Education. ISSN 1360-2357. doi: 10.1007/s10639-023-12067-y. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat (2023). ) Forskning på og utvikling av egen virksomhet- for utdanningskvalitet). Hvordan og Hva kan FUVU bidra med i prosjekter hvor en forsker på egen virksomhet? Full text in Research Archive
• Omland, Maren; Amundrud, Anja; Hontvedt, Magnus; Hermansen, Hege; Siddiq, Fazilat & Rudningen, Gudrun [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2023). Co-creation and student-staff partnership in higher education. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat (2023). Launch-webinar: What will be the new normal? Full text in Research Archive
• Kravik, Reiar; Siddiq, Fazilat; Asgård, Ellen & Berg, Tonje Karoliussen (2022). Design and development of computational thinking teaching materials for secondary school – applying collaborative problem solving. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction Across the last years, Computational thinking (CT) has been included into the compulsory K-12 curricula in many Western countries. Collaborative problem solving (ColPS) on the other hand is a pedagogical approach that has proven effective for teaching CT as shown in a recent meta-analysis (Scherer et al., 2020), and is considered a vital 21st-century skill which has also been acknowledged in the K-12 education in the Nordic countries. However, the access to CT teaching materials which apply ColPS is limited. The TEACH21st-project aims at contributing with knowledge, teaching materials and practices to bridge this gap. This study aims at developing teaching materials and resources for grade 9 students, focusing on developing their CT and ColPS competences. Theoretical framework We apply the “Computational thinker” as the underlying framework which suggests different sub-competences and approaches for working with CT in classrooms (Csizmadia et al., 2015). This framework is also used in the new national Norwegian curriculum, implemented from schoolyear 2020/2021. In the curriculum programming has been emphasized as the way to teach CT in four subject domains. Methodology Teacher-design-team approach (Becuwe et al., 2016) was employed to develop teaching materials and approaches for teaching programming/CT as an integrated part of mathematics. The team includes two in-service teachers, one student teacher, and one teacher educator, and was supported by a group of researchers. The requirements for developing the teaching resources were: Relevance to curriculum Duration of maximum 3 weeks Feasibility and relevance for the Norwegian classrooms An iterative process resulted in seven modules of programming and CT applying both practical (un-plugged) and theoretical activities. This was piloted during autumn 2020, and the data include: student assignments, reflections, observations and meeting notes. Results The pilot was conducted in a grade 9 class (n= 22), including students at varying levels of competence and school motivation. The observations and student assignments showed that the students were more engaged in the mere practical sessions and working together in those activities that required collaboration – in particular, this was the case for the low-achieving students. Hence, in addition to some smaller adjustments and refinements, some of the theoretical activities were replaced with more practical activities. The activities were designed in such a way that they could not be conducted without the students interacting with each other and solving problems (e.g., commanding each other as robot). Moreover, from the student assignments the connection between the practical and theoretical activities seemed to enhance their CT knowledge.

• Gochyeev, Perman; Siddiq, Fazilat; Scherer, Ronny & WIlson, Mark (2022). Exploring collaborative problem-solving tasks for individual-level and team-level inferences using multilevel modeling. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Collaborative problem solving (ColPS) is necessary to succeed in the 21st century and has therefore been introduced into compulsory K-12 education in many Western countries. ColPS is the “capacity of an individual to: recognize the perspective of other persons in a group; participate as a member of the group by contributing their knowledge, experience, and expertise constructively; recognize the need for contributions and how to manage them; identify structure and procedure involved in resolving a problem; and, as a member of the collaborative group, build and develop knowledge and understanding” (Griffin et al., 2012, p.7). Several aspects need consideration when designing ColPS tasks, including group dependence, team size, and activities to promote collaboration and problem solving (Siddiq & Scherer, 2017). Since students are often randomly assigned to teams, observations within groups are not independent. Hence, psychometric models need to account for the hierarchical structure of the data. Wilson et al. (2017) presented an approach for analyzing ColPS tasks using multilevel models, which are widely used in educational research. The authors focused on modeling the group effects on the overall test performances. We propose focusing on group effects on individual task performance instead. We aim to classify ColPS tasks into ones with and without ignorable group effects, implying lower and higher collaboration. We also propose calibrating these tasks using a two-dimensional Rasch model to further understand the two constructs these items represent. We analyse data collected from the Norwegian Digital literacy (LDN-ICT) instrument (Siddiq et al., 2017). In total, 39 tasks were administered to 144 ninth-grade students who worked in groups of three or four. Prior to modelling, it will be helpful to use descriptive statistics in an exploratory way to establish a framing context for modelling. Preliminary findings suggest that tasks showing significant group effects can be identified based on the estimated intraclass correlation (ICC)—a commonly used measure of group dependence. ICCs closer to zero indicate ignorable group effects, while higher ICCs imply substantial group effects. The ICCs ranged between 0.00 and 0.88, with an average ICC of 0.31. We also found a significant agreement between estimated group dependence and intended group dependence. Moreover, tasks requiring reflection, evaluation, and accessing information exhibited higher ICCs than others. This study contributes to the design and analysis of ColPS assessments and illustrates tools to assess if tasks function as they were intended.

• Siddiq, Fazilat (2022). Hvordan forberede undervisere for digital undervisning og hva mener studentene om slike undervisningsformer? Full text in Research Archive
• Daus, Stephan; Siddiq, Fazilat & Vennerød-Diesen, Frida Felicia (2022). Teaching Early Numeracy Using an Innovative Blended Learning Approach: a Quasi-Experimental Study of Dragonbox School. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Technology in facilitating early numeracy learning seems promising (Young, 2017), but instruction still benefits from face-to-face teaching. Thus, blended learning, i.e. combining online and offline supports, seems promising (Stahl, 2021). The Dragonbox School blended learning mathematics tool consists of physical figures (“Nooms”, small figures illustrating their numeric values and personalities), related story books, practice books, and digital tasks, simulations and games. Moreover, it reflects the idea that early numeracy can be taught by emphasizing numbers as quantities or values, instead of the traditional approach where students memorize numbers, counting and ordinals. Although not a new idea, implementation has earlier been limited by physical constraints to develop suitable materials and practices. This tool is relevant to Nordic countries as learning is combined with play, exploration and storytelling, and Norwegian teachers in grades 1 and 2 have favoured the tool (Bugge & Siddiq, 2021). However, no studies have investigated how this tool affects young students’ achievement in, and motivation for, mathematics compared with ordinary instruction. We seek to address this gap, and also investigate whether effects depend on gender and prior achievement. We used a quasi-experimental pre-post design. A convenience sample of intervention schools mainly from a medium-sized municipality in Norway, and comparison schools outside said municipality, were recruited. We include students who took at the end of the year a paper-based numeracy assessment with acceptable validity, resulting in 627 students (594 in intervention, 33 in comparison) in grade 1 and 780 students (526 and 254) in grade 2. Additionally, teachers rated each student’s mathematics motivation and competence at the start and end of the year. The intervention and control group contained equal proportions of students with mathematics or general learning difficulties. A higher proportion of students with a minority language background in the intervention group compared to the control group was due to differences between the schools. In addition, in grade 1, there was a higher proportion of students with behavioral problems in the intervention group than in the control group, but achievement and motivation levels were equal in the intervention group and the control group at the start of the year. The tool seems to relate to increased mathematics competence and motivation among first grade pupils. We found no negative effect on any outcome measure, nor that it advantages one gender above another or students at particular performance levels. Hence, the tool seems not to assist those lagging behind, but gaps do not increase. There are two main limitations. Lack of randomization and a relatively small comparison group implies no conclusive causality. Furthermore, several integrated parts complicates pinpointing what explains the differences in mean gains between groups. Hence, we recommend further development of the tool, and improved design features. Bugge, M., & Siddiq, F. (2021). Empowering professionalism in mission-oriented innovation. Science and Public Stahl, G. (2021) Redesigning Mathematical Curriculum for Blended Learning. Education Sciences, 11, 165. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11040165 Young, J. (2017). Technology-enhanced mathematics instruction: A second-order meta-analysis of 30 years of research. Educational Research Review, 22, 19–33. Doi:1016/j.edurev.2017.07.001

• Siddiq, Fazilat (2022). Teaching and Assessment of Digital Competence in K-12 Education: Future Prospectives. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat & Murchand, Damian (2022). Time to add ethical standards for using process data in educational assessment? Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Computerized assessments can generate process data that record examinees’ digital traces. Whereas advances in analyzing such data accelerate, ethical and legal concerns persist. This study relates the paucity of information about ethics in process data studies to existing test standards, proposing how standards might be revised to address the concerns.

• Siddiq, Fazilat; Daus, Stephan & Vennerød-Diesen, Frida Felicia (2022). Teaching Early Numeracy Using an Innovative Blended Learning Approach: A Quasi-Experimental Study of Dragonbox School. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The importance of the development of early numeracy has been established in prior studies, and the pedagogical approach focusing on number values rather than counting has been emphasized. Dragonbox School builds on this pedagogical approach for teaching mathematics in primary school and includes physical and digital components orchestrated into a blended learning approach. The main aim of this study was to measure the impact of the newly developed blended learning system Dragonbox School for early numeracy competence development in grade 1 and 2 through a quasi-experimental pre-post study across one schoolyear. Our data (N= 627 grade 1 and N= 780 grade 2 students) showed significant positive results on achievement and motivation in favor of the intervention group in grade 1.

• Siddiq, Fazilat & Kristoffersen, Cecilie (2022). Collaborative Learning in Classrooms: Students’ Experiences and Attitudes Matters. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Collaborative learning in digital environments has gained increased focus across the last two decades, and been integrated into compulsory curricula in many countries as a cricital 21st century skill. However, there is a limited access to concrete available teaching and learning materials to develop students’ collaborative learning competences. To contribute to this gap, we aimed at developing and investigating a framework for facilitating the development of students’ collaborative learning. Moreover, we designed a teaching program focusing on the subjects social science and religion. We applied a design-based research approach across a period of 2-years. In this case study, we focus on the students’ perceptions, experiences and attitudes towards collaborative learning in general and related to the project they participated in. We conducted semi-structured interviews with three focus groups, and data was analysed using thematic analysis. Our preliminary findings show that the students hold positive attitudes towards collaborative learning and consider it important skills they should learn at schools. Yet, their understanding of collaborative learning is narrow and focuses mostly on solving the tasks and not the process of collaboration nor the skills needed to be able to contribute to collaborative learning. The findings and their implications will be discussed.

• Daus, Stephan; Vennerød-Diesen, Frida Felicia; Siddiq, Fazilat; Smedsrud, Jørgen Hammer; Håland, Tine Weise & Bugge, Markus Michaelsen (2021). Hvordan fungerer Dragonbox Skole på elevenes matematikkferdigheter og lærelyst? Full text in Research Archive
• Vennerød-Diesen, Frida Felicia; Siddiq, Fazilat; Smedsrud, Jørgen Hammer; Bugge, Markus & Daus, Stephan (2021). Innovativ matematikkundervisning på barnetrinnet førte til positive resultater. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Matematikkundervisning på barnetrinnet med læreverket Dragonbox Skole har så langt vært en suksess. Implementeringen har hatt god oppslutning med engasjerte lærere. Elevene som brukte læreverket, gjorde det bedre på matematikkprøver enn elever som ikke brukte det. Lærernes erfaringer med profesjonsutvikling, implementering av læreverket og tilpasset opplæring har blitt undersøkt.

• Kravik, Reiar; Berg, Tonje Karoliussen & Siddiq, Fazilat (2021). Teachers’ understanding of computational thinking, their practices and need for professional development in Primary education. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat; Scherer, Ronny & Tondeur, Jo (2020). Developing Students’ Collaborative Problem-Solving Competence (TEACH21st): Towards a linking science. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat (2020). Who are we and are we ready to teach online? Considering Higher education teacher online readiness in policy and practice. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat & Gochyyev, Perman (2019). The measurement of academic behavioral skills and engagement and their role on young students’ academic performance – A validation across four countries. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study investigates the reliability and validity of the International Study of City Youth (ISCY)-survey, which among others aims at measuring students’ academic behavioral skills and engagement. The academic behavioral skills scale consists of three dimensions (factors): Self-concept; Social skills; and Self-management. The engagement scale also consists of three dimensions: Behavioral-, Cognitive-, and Emotional engagement. The aim of this study is to investigate the survey instrument to: 1) inspect how well it measures the underlying constructs, 2) the extent to which they predict academic performance, and 3) whether the survey is fair across groups such as students’ gender, country, minority- and socio-economic background. The fairness analyses are critical to make valid comparisons between groups and across countries. The survey was administered to students in grade 10 from a large city in Belgium, Iceland, Norway and Spain. The data consist of 8520 students and were analyzed using item response theory modelling. Using confirmatory and exploratory approaches, we found that the multidimensional Rasch model fits better than the unidimensional Rasch model for academic behavioral skills and engagement, implying that both scales measure multiple factors. The differential item functioning analysis show that both scales act fairly across students’ gender. We will further investigate whether items are unbiased with respect to students’ country, minority-, and socio-economic background. So far, we also found that both scales—which are correlated—predict academic performance. We will investigate whether the predictive power of these scales is consistent across countries. Further implications for research and practice are discussed.

• Murchan, Damian & Siddiq, Fazilat (2019). Ethical considerations involving data analytics in educational assessment: A systematic literature review. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Computer-based assessments (CBA) have potential to provide valuable information for stakeholders, especially in the context of the digital agenda in education. Benefits of CBAs include flexibility, efficiency, consistency in scoring and increased student engagement. Another advantage is potential for employment of data mining and data analytics techniques to model examinees’ engagement with items, including a variety of simple and more complex tasks. Approaches to data analytics have captured the imagination of researchers, even if on-the-ground illustrations lag somewhat behind. Optimism about the power of process data to help explain and formatively guide student learning is tempered somewhat by technical challenges. This study explores another challenge, namely ethical and privacy issues surrounding the use of logfile data for purposes that may not have been adequately explained to the students. Set against a backdrop of accelerating advances in computational processing, public concern about the privacy of online data and recent EU data regulations, this systematic review of literature audits practice in log file analysis, provides up-to-date knowledge and uncovers research gaps. Highlighting the extent to which issues of privacy, consent, individuals’ rights and ethics have been reflected in research using process data drawn from student assessments, the findings provide useful evidence to assessment professionals and help inform future research and practice.

• Scherer, Ronny; Siddiq, Fazilat & Viveros, Bárbara Sánchez (2018). Technology and the Mind: Does Learning to Code Improve Cognitive Skills? Proceedings / ACM Multimedia Conference. doi: 10.1145/3183654.3183658. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Modern technology permeates almost every area in society and thus necessitates the development of new skillsets--including computer coding. Many leaders around the world consequently encourage students to learn to code, as this may help them to develop other skills, including problem solving, reasoning, and numeracy. The current study, based on a meta-analysis, puts to test this largely accepted claim that learning how to code improves other cognitive skills. We identified 105 relevant studies that examined the transfer of coding skills to other cognitive skills, such as reasoning, problem solving, creativity, literacy, and numeracy. These studies provided more than 150 effect sizes and followed experimental and quasi-experimental designs across all educational levels. A three-level random-effects model was specified to the resultant dataset to summarize the transfer effects. Hedges' g formed the basis for this modelling approach. The aggregated size of the transfer effects--independent of the context of transfer--was positive and mediocre (g = 0.49, 95% CI = [0.37, 0.61]), and showed considerable variation within and between studies. At the same time, this effect differed across transfer contexts--for skills closer to computer coding, effects were larger (near transfer) than for skills that overlap only marginally with coding (far transfer). Moreover, the purpose of coding moderated the overall effects. Our response to the question whether learning to code improves other cognitive skills is positive: Indeed, positive transfer effects can be detected. Nevertheless, learning to code has differential rather than uniform effects on other cognitive skills.

• Siddiq, Fazilat (2018). The Journey of Digital Competence Assessment: Past, Current Status and Future Directions. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  ICT and learning in education has been a highly debated topic for the last two decades and beyond. As the access to technology and the technology itself has evolved, its status and impact on education has also transformed. With regard to such changes, digital competence has been emphasised and integrated into the national curricula of many countries around the world. Such national curricular reforms often emphasise the need for digitally literate citizens to participate in the future workforce and knowledge society (Griffin, McGaw, & Care, 2012). Accordingly, the need to monitor and assess students’ digital competence has been recognised. This study explores the field of digital competence assessment reflecting on: the past (e.g., changes across time), the current status (e.g., major trends), and the future challenges and opportunities. The current study builds on a recent systematic review examining digital competence assessments in K-12 education (Siddiq et al., 2016). This systematic review provided an overview of existing performance-based assessments of digital competences, the reporting of the validity and reliability indicators, and sample characteristics. The body of research literature used in this systematic review was updated to identify recently published studies reporting digital competence assessment. This update included the search in relevant databases. The findings of this study show that the assessment of digital competence has changed profoundly across the last 30 years. These changes include the content of the assessments (i.e., what is measured in the tests), and how it is measured (i.e., the test mode and the item presentation and response options). Moreover, these changes largely reflect the changes of ICT in education across time, and will be discussed using Martin’s (2006) descriptions about the different time periods (i.e., stages) of ICT in education, starting from the mastery stage (1960s to mid-1980s), through the application stage (mid-1980s to late 1990s), and the reflective stage (1990s and on). The findings will be discussed taking a future perspective, and reflections regarding the implications for research and practice will be provided.

• Siddiq, Fazilat (2018). One task - multiple uses: recommendations for the development of collaborative problem solving tasks. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat & Murchan, Damian (2018). Regulatory and ethical implications of using log file data. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat (2017). Hva sier nyere forskning om 1:1 implementering av digitale enheter i skolen? Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat (2017). Digital Natives – a myth? Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat (2017). Hvordan lære elevene mer enn telling? Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat (2017). A Comparison Between Digital Competence in Two Nordic Countries’ National Curricula and International Frameworks: Inspecting their Readiness for 21st Century Education. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat (2017). ICT Literacy Assessment: Status, Innovations and Future Directions. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat & Tondeur, Jo (2017). The association between digital competencies and ICT integration in education. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat & Scherer, Ronny (2017). Is there a gap? A meta-analytic review of the gender and SES effects on students’ ICT literacy. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat (2017). Hva sier forskning om bruk av nettbrett i skolen? [TV]. God morgen Norge. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat & Tondeur, Jo (2016). Enhancing Preservice Teachers’ Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: How Teacher Education Matters. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This paper has been awarded the prize of best paper at the Educational Technology World Conference (ETWC) 2016. The main aim of this study was to measure the impact of the support pre-service teachers receive on their knowledge for effective technology integration, namely technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK). Specifically, we focused on the strategies included in the SQD (Synthesis of Qualitative Evidence) model: 1) using teacher educators as role models, 2) reflecting on the role of technology in education, 3) learning how to use technology by design, 4) collaboration with peers, 5) scaffolding authentic technology experiences, and 6) providing continuous feedback. In order to explore the relation between the perceived occurrences of the SQD-strategies and TPACK, survey data were collected from a sample of 688 final-year pre-service teachers in Belgium. In addition, a multiple case study was conducted in three teacher training institutions, including three focus group discussions with 19 pre-service teachers.The first results are included in the presentation.

• Siddiq, Fazilat & Scherer, Ronny (2016). Investigating student-student interactions in an assessment of collaborative problem solving: An in-depth analysis of think-aloud protocols. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat (2016). Learning in Digital Networks – A novel assessment of students’ ICT literacy. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat (2016). Assessment of Students’ 21st Century Skills - Focusing on Student-Student Collaboration. Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat (2016). Assessment of students’ ICT literacy – Taking a future perspective by learning from the past. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Information and communication technology (ICT) literacy is considered crucial for participating in work life, education, and society in the 21st century. Thus, during the last decade, there has been a rapidly increasing focus on integrating ICT in education and developing students’ ICT literacy. Hence, assessments with the aim of measuring students’ ICT competences have been developed. This presentation provides state-of-the-art knowledge about ICT literacy and its assessment in education by presenting findings from a recently conducted systematic review. An appraisal and synthesis of 38 tests of ICT literacy indicate that the majority of the tests measure facets such as searching, retrieving, and evaluating digital information, and technical skills. In particular, the access to tests measuring digital communication, collaboration, safety, and problem solving is still limited. As a response to these limitations and in an attempt to meet some of the gaps revealed by the systematic review, the test Learning in Digital Networks – ICT literacy developed by the Assessment and Teaching of 21st Century Skills (ATC21S) project was translated and adapted to Norwegian language and school culture. Some initial results from the Norwegian ATC21S-test data will be presented and discussed with regard to its educational implications.

• Siddiq, Fazilat & Scherer, Ronny (2016). Do Age and Gender Matter for the Relation Between Teachers’ Computer Self-efficacy and their Emphasis on Developing Students’ Digital Skills? Full text in Research Archive
• Siddiq, Fazilat; Larsen, Even Hellan; Reiling, Rune Borgan; Wollscheid, Sabine; Vaagland, Karin & Tømte, Cathrine Edelhard (2018). Evaluering av «Tett på realfag». Status før implementeringen. Delrapport 1 : Evaluering av «Tett på realfag». Nasjonal strategi for realfag i barnehagen og grunnopplæringen (2015-2019). NIFU Nordisk institutt for studier av innovasjon, forskning og utdanning. ISSN 9788232703227. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Norske myndigheter har lansert strategien «Tett på realfag» for perioden 2015–2019. Denne skal bidra til at barns og unges kompetanse forbedres i naturfag og matematikk. Et uttalt mål er at flere barn og unge skal prestere på et høyt og avansert nivå i disse fagområdene og at andelene barn og unge som presterer på et lavt nivå, reduseres. Strategien skal bidra til økt kompetanse i realfag for både barn, elever og ansatte i barnehage og grunnopplæring. På oppdrag fra Utdanningsdirektoratet skal NIFU evaluere strategien. Foreliggende rapport, delrapport 1, er den første av fire rapporter som samlet presenterer funnene fra evalueringen. Delrapport 1 omfatter status før implementeringen av strategien. En beskrivelse av konteksten som strategien ble innført i, vil gi en forståelse av behovet for en realfagsstrategi og for hvilke forventninger det er rimelig å tillegge strategien. Analysene fra delrapport 1 skal også underbygge og peke på potensielle utfordringer ved å utføre en forskjeller-i-forskjeller-analyse i evalueringens sluttrapport.

• Siddiq, Fazilat; Bugge, Markus; Ulriksen, Robin & Tømte, Cathrine Edelhard (2017). Matematikk på nye måter : Erfaringer fra pilotering av Dragonbox ved 10 skoler i Skedsmo kommune. NIFU Nordisk institutt for studier av innovasjon, forskning og utdanning. ISSN 9788232702848. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Denne rapporten presenterer resultatene fra følgeevalueringen av Dragonbox – et heldigitalt læreverk for å fremme tallforståelse i begynneropplæringen i pilotåret 2016/2017. Formålet har vært å belyse flere sider ved implementeringen av læreverket, slik som organiseringen av uttestingen, opplevelsen av implementeringen hos de involverte aktørene, samt brukertilfredshet og erfaringer med læreverket.

• Sjaastad, Jørgen; Siddiq, Fazilat; Ulriksen, Robin & Tømte, Cathrine Edelhard (2017). Den virtuelle matematikkskolen skoleåret 2016-2017 : Evaluering av tilbudene DVM-U, DVM-Pluss og DVM-1T. NIFU Nordisk institutt for studier av innovasjon, forskning og utdanning. ISSN 9788232702831. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Den virtuelle matematikkskolen (DVM) er et nettbasert tilbud for elever på ungdomsskoletrinnet. Målet er å prøve ut nye former for IKT-basert opplæring for å skape mestringsfølelse og motivasjon gjennom nivåtilpasset opplæring i matematikk. Målgruppen er både elever med høy måloppnåelse i faget og elever med lav måloppnåelse. NIFU har evaluert tilbudene og funnene presenteres i foreliggende rapport. Evalueringen er utført på oppdrag for Senter for IKT i utdanningen.

• Siddiq, Fazilat & Rønsen, Ester (2017). Pilotering av lærerspesialistordningen i Oslo 2015-2017 : Sluttrapport basert på data fra spørreundersøkelser til lærerspesialister, deres kolleger og ledere. NIFU Nordisk institutt for studier av innovasjon, forskning og utdanning. ISSN 9788232702985. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Denne rapporten er utarbeidet av NIFU på oppdrag fra Utdanningsetaten i Oslo. Data som er analysert og som presenteres i form av enkle figurer, er i utgangspunktet samlet inn for prosjektet Evaluering av piloteringen av ordningen med lærerspesialister i skoleårene 2015- 2016 og 2016-2017, i samarbeid mellom NIFU og NTNU Samfunnsforskning på oppdrag fra Utdanningsdirektoratet.

• Siddiq, Fazilat & Gjerustad, Cay (2017). Deltakerundersøkelsen for barnehageansatte 2017 : Resultater fra en spørreundersøkelse blant ansatte i barnehagen som har tatt videreutdanning innenfor strategien «Kompetanse for fremtidens barnehage». NIFU Nordisk institutt for studier av innovasjon, forskning og utdanning. ISSN 9788232702954. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Denne rapporten er skrevet på oppdrag for Utdanningsdirektoratet. Rapporten presenterer resultater fra Deltakerundersøkelsen for barnehager 2017, en spørreundersøkelse rettet mot barnehageansatte som har tatt videreutdanning i regi av strategien Kompetanse for fremtidens barnehager. Hensikten er å undersøke de barnehageansattes opplevelse av videreutdanningen de har tatt.

• Siddiq, Fazilat (2016). Assessment of ICT Literacy. A comprehensive inquiry of the educational readiness for the digital era. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This dissertation is concerned with assessment of primary and secondary students’ information, communication and technology (ICT) literacy. The overarching aim of the dissertation is to investigate the positions and perspectives of different actors (teachers and students) and practices (assessment instruments) to portray how educational systems can monitor and support the development of students’ ICT literacy. The background for the research focus is the importance of ICT literacy for preparing students for the digital era. Thus, the responsibility of teachers as facilitators of students’ learning of ICT literacy and the critical role of assessments to monitor and seek to realize this objective is emphasized. Three individual papers contribute to the overarching aim by addressing distinct research questions and applying different methods. The first paper systematically reviews literature on ICT literacy assessments with the aim to provide knowledge about the characteristics of the assessments, which facets of ICT literacy are measured, and the reported quality of the assessments. It draws on several theoretical frameworks and aims to bridge the disparities in the field related to the varied use of concepts and frameworks. By synthesizing research, the paper outlines the state of the art and identifies research gaps, some of which are addressed in the subsequent papers. In the second paper, an instrument to measure teachers’ emphasis on the development of students’ digital information and communication skills (TEDDICS) is validated. This construct describes a qualitative aspect of ICT use, and it is aligned with the ICT competences students are expected to attain (i.e., accessing, evaluating, and sharing and communicating digital information). The third paper validates the Learning in Digital Networks—ICT literacy (LDN-ICT) test, an online, performance-based assessment that measures students’ ability to handle digital information, create content, communicate, and collaboratively solve problems. The findings of Paper 2 and Paper 3 revealed satisfying levels of evidence of the reliability and validity of the two scales, and further refinements and implications are suggested. ICT literacy frameworks and Assessment emerged as two central themes across the three papers, and they form the core of the dissertation. Moreover, the Norwegian context is emphasized in the dissertation because the respondents in Paper 2 and Paper 3 are Norwegian teachers and students. The findings of the dissertation show that the international frameworks can be aligned; theoretical and empirical evidence for the alignment is provided. Yet, in comparison, the Norwegian ICT literacy framework has some limitations; suggestions for further revisions are given. Moreover, the importance of high-quality assessments is emphasized in the dissertation, and a set of indicators for reporting the quality of the tests was identified and further applied to appraise ICT literacy assessments. The findings show that an adequate norm for documenting and reporting the quality of ICT literacy tests is lacking. These indicators were further used as a blueprint in the two validation studies (Papers 2 and 3). In conclusion, the dissertation contributes to the field of ICT literacy assessment by showing the interrelations between the intended, implemented, and attained curriculum, as each of them is addressed in one of the three papers. By providing state of the art in the field and validating two instruments that can be used together, the dissertation helps to inform educational systems regarding how they can monitor and support the development of students’ ICT literacy.

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