Mark Christopher White

• Jentsch, Armin; White, Mark Christopher & Klette, Kirsti (2026). Three types of subject-specificity. Exploring differences in the measurement of teaching quality across Norwegian mathematics and language arts classrooms. Teaching and Teacher Education : An International Journal of Research and Studies. ISSN 0742-051X. 169. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Measuring teaching quality is important to better understand student learning in classrooms. To directly capture teaching quality constructs, subject-specific and subject-generic observation systems have been developed, with benefits and challenges on both sides. However, we show that subject-specificity may address different things and come with different implicit assumptions about what is subject-specific. As a common ground for empirical work, we draw on a framework of measurement equivalence and discuss three nested claims on subject-specificity. Then, we analyze videotaped lessons from 47 mathematics and 49 language arts classrooms which were scored with the Protocol for Language Arts Teaching Observation (PLATO). Results indicate that scores in Instructional Scaffolding show the largest differences between subjects. We argue that subject-specificity is a claim about a theoretical construct, which should be clearly addressed in future research.

• White, Mark Christopher; Rohatgi, Anubha & Jacobsen, Hilde Marie Madsø (2025). Tilrettelegging for teknologibruk i den norske skolen: innsikter fra ICILS 2023. In Rohatgi, Anubha & Hatlevik, Ove Edvard (Ed.), Søkelys på digital læring: Sekundæranalyser fra ICILS 2023. Cappelen Damm Forskning/NOASP. ISSN 9788202905682. p. 227–251. doi: 10.23865/cdf.271.ch8. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  I dette kapittelet undersøker vi faktorer som kan påvirke rektors og læreres bruk av digital teknologi. Vi tester anvendelsesverdien til Four in Balancemodellen i norsk kontekst. Denne modellen argumenterer for at teknologibruk blir fremmet når det er funnet en balanse mellom fire faktorer: visjon, kompetanse, digital infrastruktur og digitale læringsressurser. Den har tidligere blitt brukt både i forskning og i praksis for å veilede implementering av teknologibruk. Med utgangspunkt i data fra lærere, rektorer og IKT-koordinator fra ICILS 2023, undersøker vi i hvilken grad Four in Balance-modellen kan forutsi observert variasjon i teknologibruk blant rektorer og lærere. Analysene viser at variablene som representerer de fire faktorene i modellen har svak sammenheng med teknologibruk blant både rektorer og lærere i Norge. To av variablene (læreres oppfatning av kollegasamarbeid og læreres digitale mestringstro) i analysen viser en statistisk signifikant sammenheng med rektorers teknologibruk, og én variabel viser en statistisk signifikant sammenheng med læreres teknologibruk. Dette resultatet tyder på at modellen ikke er godt nok tilpasset den norske konteksten. Vi diskuterer Four in Balancemodellens begrensninger og hvordan forskning kan bidra til bedre forståelse av teknologibruk i norskskole.

• White, Mark Christopher & Jentsch, Armin (2025). Observationally measuring teaching from the perspective of Behavioral Domain Theory and Generalizability Theory, Research Handbook on Classroom Observation. Elgar Handbooks in Education. ISSN 9781035321537. p. 208–223. doi: 10.4337/9781035321544.00020. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Classroom observation often seeks to transform teaching practice into a set of scores that represent a specific understanding of teaching quality so that these scores can be used for a specified purpose. This chapter discusses Behavioral Domain Theory and Generalizability Theory as cognitive frameworks that support the observational measurement of teaching. Behavioral Domain Theory provides a basis from which to interpret scores as representing the intended constructs, while Generalizability Theory provides a statistical framework for exploring the quality of the measurement process. Using these two theories, we discuss the challenges that arise in measuring a specific understanding of teaching quality with classroom observation. These challenges involve specifying a purpose of measurement and using that purpose to clearly specify what is being measured, who is doing the measurement, and where measurement is occurring (i.e., which instructional contexts are relevant). We discuss these challenges in light of Behavioral Domain Theory and Generalizability Theory, showing that these theories provide a strong basis from which to plan for measurement, make sense of and interpret the resulting data, and support the validity of specific interpretations of scores.

• White, Mark Christopher (2025). What is in a Score? Exploring the Contribution of Raters, Students, Teachers, and the Teaching Context to Scores from Observation Systems. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation (PARE). 30(1). doi: 10.7275/PARE.2106. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Systematized, observational approaches to measuring teaching quality are an important tool in research and practice. Termed observation systems, these approaches are include a rubric that operationalizes a set of teaching quality constructs and structures to support rater training and monitoring. Scores from observation systems, through their interpretation as capturing the intended teaching quality constructs, are used to develop theoretical understandings of teaching quality. This paper explores what factors contribute to observation scores in a secondary analysis of the Understanding Teaching Quality project. Leveraging calibration data, I combine mixed-effects regression analyses of calibration data that examine rater accuracy (i.e., deviations from master scores) with analyses of operational data to explore the extent to which raters, students, teachers, and the teaching context contribute to scores. These analyses highlight that (1) some rater error may be invisible in typical analyses examining rater agreement; (2) rater error is largely systematic; and (3) differences in student composition across schools largely explain between-school differences in scores. These results highlight potential biases in estimates of score reliability and validity coefficients that might exist in studies that model rater agreement rather than rater accuracy and/or that fail to consider differences in between-teacher and between-school variation in observation scores.

• Klette, Kirsti; Luoto, Jennifer Maria; Magnusson, Camilla Gudmundsdatter & White, Mark Christopher (2025). Protocol for Language Arts Teaching Observation (PLATO) as a lens for assessing teaching quality. School Effectiveness and School Improvement. ISSN 0924-3453. 36(3), p. 414–432. doi: 10.1080/09243453.2025.2527728. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In this study, we used the Protocol for Language Arts Teaching Observation (PLATO) tool to examine teaching quality in two consecutive Norwegian language arts lessons and two consecutive mathematics lessons to identify key patterns of teaching quality and how aspects of PLATO shaped findings. Our analyses reveal that the mathematics lessons receive consistently high scores on most PLATO elements while the patterns in the language arts lessons are more mixed of high and low scores fluctuating across different parts of the lessons. On the basis of this analysis, we discuss benefits and challenges with PLATO. A major strength of PLATO is the way aspects of teaching quality are conceptualized and defined at the level of elements, supported by precise and detailed rubrics, while challenges include the way PLATO privileges some instructional formats above others and how sequencing of the lessons into 15-min segments impacts findings and patterns identified.

• White, Mark Christopher; Kaarstein, Hege & Jentsch, Armin (2025). Undervisningskvalitet og matematikkprestasjoner på 5. trinn fra TIMSS 2019 til TIMSS 2023. In Kaarstein, Hege & Lehre, Anne- Catherine W G (Ed.), Hva TIMSS forteller om norsk skole: Sekundæranalyser av TIMSS-undersøkelsen. Cappelen Damm Forskning. ISSN 9788202869137. p. 197–216. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  TIMSS 2023 viste en signifikant nedgang i matematikkprestasjonene på 5. trinn i Norge. Denne nedgangen sammenfaller med flere andre indikatorer som tyder på at norske elevers prestasjoner er på vei ned. Fordi undervisningskvalitet anses som en av de viktigste, formbare faktorene med positiv sammenheng med elevers prestasjoner, utforsker vi i dette kapittelet om elevenes oppfatning av undervisningskvalitet har endret seg. Videre utforskes det i hvilken grad nedgangen i prestasjoner har sammenheng med en eventuell endring i elevenes oppfatning av undervisningskvalitet. Kapittelet bruker data fra TIMSS 2019 og 2023 på 5. trinn. Resultatene viser at det er en liten, men statistisk signifikant nedgang i elevrapportert undervisningskvalitet fra 2019 til 2023, og at 17 prosent av nedgangen i prestasjoner henger sammen med nedgangen i elevenes oppfatning av undervisningskvalitet. Dette tyder på at nedgangen i elevenes oppfatning av undervisningskvalitet kan være en liten, men viktig forklaringsfaktor for nedgangen i prestasjoner selv om det meste av nedgangen i prestasjoner har sammenheng med andre faktorer.

• White, Mark Christopher; Selling, Alexander Jonas Viktor; Pettersen, Andreas & Veletic, Jelena (2025). Læreplan og faglig innhold i matematikk på 5. trinn i Norge. In Kaarstein, Hege & Lehre, Anne- Catherine W G (Ed.), Hva TIMSS forteller om norsk skole: Sekundæranalyser av TIMSS-undersøkelsen. Cappelen Damm Forskning. ISSN 9788202869137. p. 169–196. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hva elevene lærer på skolen, avhenger i stor grad av hva læreren underviser i. For å få en bedre forståelse av sammenhengen mellom undervisning og elevenes læring, er det derfor viktig å utforske både det faglige innholdet i læreplanen og hva som faktisk blir undervist i klasserommet. I dette kapittelet ser vi på det faglige innholdet i matematikkundervisning fra 1. til 5. trinn i både TIMSS 2019 og TIMSS 2023, for å få innsikt i hvilke emner norske lærere rapporterer at de underviser i. Vi undersøker også endringer i innholdet i matematikkundervisning fra 2019 til 2023, noe som er interessant med tanke på innføringen av læreplanverket LK20 i 2020. Vi finner at emnene som ble undervist til både norske og nordiske elever var stort sett like i 2019, selv om det var stor variasjon innenfor landene. Norge skilte seg imidlertid ut i 2023 ved at norske elever blir undervist i færre emner både i inneværende skoleår og i skoleløpet opptil 5. trinn. Denne endringen er mest tydelig innenfor hovedemnene geometri og måling og statistikk, som blir introdusert etter 5. trinn i den nye nasjonale læreplanen. Denne endringen er mindre tydelig innenfor hovedemnet tall, som utgjør hoveddelen av den nasjonale læreplanen før 5. klasse. Implikasjonene av disse endringene blir diskutert videre i kapittelet

• Kaarstein, Hege; Lehre, Anne- Catherine W G & White, Mark Christopher (2025). Fra TIMSS 2015 til TIMSS 2023: et skolemiljø i endring. In Kaarstein, Hege & Lehre, Anne- Catherine W G (Ed.), Hva TIMSS forteller om norsk skole: Sekundæranalyser av TIMSS-undersøkelsen. Cappelen Damm Forskning. ISSN 9788202869137. p. 47–77. doi: 10.23865/cdf.274.ch3. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Skolemiljøet i Norge er i endring. Kortrapporten for TIMSS 2023 viste at andel elever og lærere som rapporterer om et veldig trygt skolemiljø har blitt redusert fra 2015 til 2023. I dette kapittelet undersøkes den delen av begrepet skolemiljø som er knyttet til trygghet, trivsel og tilfredshet nærmere. Det overordnede bildet av resultatene av undersøkelsen viser at skolemiljøet fremdeles er relativt trygt. Elevene rapporterer imidlertid om en økende tendens til mobbing, og lærerne rapporterer om dårligere oppførsel blant elevene i 2023 enn i 2015. Selv om rektorene rapporterer om økende grad av problemer knyttet til hærverk og trusler både blant elevene og overfor skolens ansatte, blir problemene ikke karakterisert som mer enn moderate i 2023

• White, Mark Christopher; Göllner, Richard & Kleickmann, Thilo (2025). Reconsidering the measurement of teaching quality using a lens model: measurement dilemmas and trade-offs. School Effectiveness and School Improvement. ISSN 0924-3453. 36(2), p. 192–210. doi: 10.1080/09243453.2025.2482583. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Research has highlighted many complexities in the measurement of teaching quality that might explain the weak and inconsistent effects of teaching on learning. We introduce a lens model framework that connects both the conceptualized construct and the measured construct (i.e., scores) to teachers’ actual teaching in the classroom. This model helps researchers to carefully consider the extent to which teaching-quality scores represent the conceptualized construct (i.e., construct validity) and provides a framework for considering various dilemmas that arise when measuring teaching quality. We use the lens model to explore three dilemmas: (1) limitations in the availability and accessibility of cues that characterize constructs, (2) the variability of cues across instructional settings, and (3) the alignment of the unit of measurement and the unit of the construct. We provide guidance and suggestions for managing these dilemmas, which we hope will provide guidance for researchers seeking to measure teaching quality.

• White, Mark Christopher (2025). A Peculiarity in Psychological Measurement Practices. Psychological methods. ISSN 1082-989X. doi: 10.1037/met0000731. Full text in Research Archive
• Rindal, Ulrikke; Brevik, Lisbeth M.; White, Mark Christopher & Germundson, Christine Fossen (2025). Student experiences of English teaching in Norway. Acta Didactica Norden (ADNO). 19(1). doi: 10.5617/adno.11921. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In a society with reports of increasing mental health challenges and decreasing school motivation, English teachers are tasked with developing the English proficiency of students who simultaneously access an abundance of English-language content in mass and social media. Assuming that students’ reported experiences can give valuable insight into the dynamics of the socially situated language classroom, this study explores students’ experiences of their English instruction. A Tripod survey was administered to three cohorts of lower secondary school students between 2015 and 2022 (N=316), and descriptive statistics were used to explore differences across classrooms, time points, and gender. The results showed that student experiences were, for the most part, in line with teacher instruction that predicts higher student achievement, engagement and motivation. Students reported to experience academic press and personal support from their English teachers to a considerable extent, while boys reported to experience curricular support more than girls. No significant differences were found across time or classrooms or between genders. Rather, considerable within-classroom variation highlights the individual student and the role of the English teacher in the socially situated practice of classroom instruction. A negative development in the reported intelligibility of the teacher’s spoken English from pre- to post-Covid-19 suggests the importance of the personal and academic communication between students and teachers when they are physically present together in the classroom. The study highlights the need to focus on the role of the English teacher in a society with a considerable presence of English.

• White, Mark Christopher (2025). The Impact of the Association Between Student Characteristics and Classroom Observation Scores on Different Interpretations of Scores. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness. ISSN 1934-5747. doi: 10.1080/19345747.2025.2507350. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Scores from formal classroom observation systems are used for many purposes in both research and practice. The finding that scores are often correlated with student characteristics has led to the important question of if and when scores should be adjusted to remove this association. This paper highlights five pathways that could lead to the observed association between scores and student characteristics, along with three unique interpretations of scores. Each pathway should contribute to the association between scores and student characteristics for some, but not other, score interpretations. Depending on the score interpretation, adjustments that remove some, but not other pathways are needed. I discuss the empirical complexity of isolating and removing the effects of specific pathways, noting that typical observation systems cannot do this. I provide a bounding exercise to suggest that the potential biases arising from failing to properly account for student characteristics are modest overall, though large enough to affect individual teachers. Rater error is by far the greatest risk to interpretations of scores and systems must ensure that rater error is not associated with student characteristics

• White, Mark Christopher & Ronfeldt, Matt (2024). Monitoring Rater Quality in Observational Systems: Issues Due to Unreliable Estimates of Rater Quality. Educational Assessment. ISSN 1062-7197. 29(2), p. 124–146. doi: 10.1080/10627197.2024.2354311. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Standardized observation systems seek to reliably measure a specific conceptualization of teaching quality, managing rater error through mechanisms such as certification, calibration, validation, and double-scoring. These mechanisms both support high quality scoring and generate the empirical evidence used to support the scoring inference (i.e., that scores represent the intended construct). Past efforts to support this inference assume that rater error can be accurately estimated from a few scoring occasions. We empirically test this assumption using two datasets from the Measures of Effective Teaching project. Results show that rater error is highly complex and difficult to measure precisely from a few scoring occasions. Typically, designed rater monitoring and control mechanisms likely cannot measure rater error precisely enough to show that raters can distinguish between levels of teaching quality within the range typically observed. We discuss the implications for supporting the scoring inference, including recommended changes to rater monitoring and control mechanisms.

• White, Mark Christopher & Stovner, Roar Bakken (2024). Breakdowns in Scientific Practices: How and Why Some Accepted Scientific Claims May Have Little Actual Support. Collabra: Psychology. ISSN 2474-7394. 10(1). doi: 10.1525/collabra.121436. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This paper considers the reasonableness of claims made in empirical psychological science. Drawing on validity and institutional theories, our conceptual model views research methods as institutionalized approaches to supporting the (implicit) inferential argument that is used to validate conclusions. Breakdowns occur when researchers falsely believe that a method strongly supports the inferential argument, but where little support is provided. We identify two characteristics of methods that promote breakdowns and show that these characteristics explain breakdowns of two common methods, null hypothesis significance testing and cutoffs for fit indices. Last, we discuss broadly how to reduce breakdowns in scientific practice.

• White, Mark Christopher & Klette, Kirsti (2024). Signal, error, or bias? exploring the uses of scores from observation systems. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability. ISSN 1874-8597. doi: 10.1007/s11092-024-09427-8. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Scores from observational measures of teaching have recently been put to many uses within school systems, including communicating a standard of practice and providing teacher feedback, identifying teachers for professional development, monitoring system equity, and making employment decisions. In each of these uses, observation scores are interpreted as representing some aspect of the enacted instruction or teachers’ capacity to enact instruction, as seen through the observation systems lens for understanding teaching quality. The quality of these interpretations, or the extent to which observation scores are composed of a signal that accurately reflects the interpretation, has important implications for the overall validity of uses of observation systems. Starting from an explicit conceptualization of instruction, this paper combines generalizability theory and hierarchical linear modelling approaches to decompose observation scores to explore the extent to which scores from observation systems are composed of signal, error, and bias across four different uses (i.e., teacher feedback, professional development, monitoring system equity, and employment decisions) of scores. We show that the quality of observation scores may depend more on what scores are interpreted as representing (i.e., the proposed use) than on the specific observation rubric being used. Further, we show that rater errors and biases are a major threat to any attempt to interpret observation scores as capturing the observation system’s understanding of teaching quality. We discuss implications for using scores from observation systems.

• White, Mark Christopher; Blikstad-Balas, Marte & Jenset, Inga Staal (2024). CORNERSTONE SECTION III: Research designs for video-based professional learning, Using Video to Foster Teacher Development Improving Professional Practice through Adaptation and Reflection. Routledge. ISSN 9781003427414. Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher; Blikstad-Balas, Marte & Jenset, Inga Staal (2024). Research designs for video-based professional learning, Using Video to Foster Teacher Development Improving Professional Practice through Adaptation and Reflection. Routledge. ISSN 9781003427414. doi: 10.4324/9781003427414. Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher & Maher, Bridget (2024). What value do standardized observation systems add to summative teacher evaluation systems? Studies in Educational Evaluation. ISSN 0191-491X. 83. doi: 10.1016/j.stueduc.2024.101414. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Teacher evaluation systems work to balance summative and formative goals. Instructional observations are an important part of such systems, allowing evaluation to directly impact instruction. Research shows that summative and formative goals can conflict with each other. This paper examines whether the summative usage of observation scores contributes to summative evaluation. We find that, after accounting for traditional principal ratings, observation scores provide little predictive validity for identifying high quality teachers. Given the reviewed negative impacts of summative uses of observation scores in teacher evaluation, teacher evaluation systems should reconsider the summative usage of observation scores.

• White, Mark Christopher & Maher, Bridget L. (2024). How might rubric-based observations better support teacher learning and development? Educational Research. ISSN 0013-1881. doi: 10.1080/00131881.2024.2304542. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Many education systems internationally expect schools to participate in continuous instructional improvement programmes. One tool used within these processes is the structured, rubric-based classroom observation, focused on the evaluation of teaching. Such observations are a common feature of formative evaluation systems, teacher coaching programmes, within-school teacher collaborative structures, and other local, regional or national frameworks. However, a question arises as to how rubric-based observations may better support teacher learning and development. Purpose and sources Drawing on existing theoretical arguments and empirical work, this paper seeks to contribute to discussion about rubric-based classroom observation and its relationship with teacher learning and instructional improvement. Main arguments Observation rubrics can be regarded as summaries of a community’s understanding of good instruction. When generated in a way that makes this understanding accessible to teachers in the context of their own practice, they have the potential to place the rubric’s, and teachers’, understandings of good teaching ‘in conversation’ with each other. This could provide valuable opportunities for teachers to refine and expand their understandings of good instruction. Embedding rubric-based observations in school structures can, thus, facilitate continuous improvement efforts by better supporting teacher self-reflection, feedback, and collaboration. However, many uses of observation within school contexts tend to prioritise the rubric’s, rather than teachers’, understanding of good teaching. This risks turning observations from tools of learning into tools of judgement, disrupting the pathway through which they might support teacher learning and instructional improvement. Conclusion Our discussion draws attention to the potential benefits yielded and the challenges that may occur in using rubric-based observations to support teacher learning. It highlights factors that need consideration in efforts to leverage rubric-based observations to better promote continuous teacher learning, ultimately positively influencing student learning.

• White, Mark Christopher; Edelsbrunner, Peter A. & Thurn, Christian M. (2024). The conceptualisation implies the statistical model: implications for measuring domains of teaching quality. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice. ISSN 0969-594X. doi: 10.1080/0969594X.2024.2368252. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Classroom observation rubrics are a widely adopted tool for measuring the quality of teaching and provide stable conceptualisations of teaching quality that facilitate empirical research. Here, we present four statistical approaches for analysing data from classroom observations: Factor analysis, Rasch modelling, latent class or profile analysis, and formative measurement models. Each statistical model conceptualises the latent variable differently, which may or may not align with the observation rubric’s conceptualisation of teaching quality. We discuss the differences across these models, focusing on the alignment between the rubric’s conceptualisation of teaching quality and the model’s modelling of the latent variable. We discuss the need to align model selection with observation rubric so that the measured teaching quality reflects the theoretically conceptualised teaching quality.

• White, Mark Christopher & Klette, Kirsti (2023). What's in a score? Problematizing interpretations of observation scores. Studies in Educational Evaluation. ISSN 0191-491X. 77. doi: 10.1016/j.stueduc.2023.101238. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Several recent, large-scale observations of naturally occurring classroom instruction have found consistent patterns in how teaching quality systematically varies across domains of instruction, patterns not found in student survey measures. Teaching quality is highest when examining aspects of classroom management; moderately high when examining aspects of student support; and low when focusing on the quality of the instructional support provided to students. This paper problematizes this interpretation, arguing that observed data patterns could result from dilemmas inherent in measuring teaching quality through observation. In problematizing these conclusions, we highlight the complexity of trying to measure instruction at scale, arguing for the need for caution and consideration of the complexity of measurement when interpreting scores from observation systems.

• White, Mark Christopher; Luoto, Jennifer Maria; Klette, Kirsti & Blikstad-Balas, Marte (2022). Bringing the conceptualization and measurement of teaching into alignment. Studies in Educational Evaluation. ISSN 0191-491X. 75. doi: 10.1016/j.stueduc.2022.101204. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  There is a growing use of standardized observation systems to directly measure teaching quality in classrooms. These systems are based on conceptual understandings of teaching that lead to carefully operationalized rubrics that decompose teaching quality into a number of distinct dimensions. In this paper, we argue that measurement and analysis choices used by observation systems may not fully align with the conceptual understandings of teaching upon which observation systems are based. We discuss three key assumptions that undergird many views of teaching quality and highlight how common analytical approaches violate these assumptions, proposing alternative analytical approaches that would better conform to the conceptual understandings of teaching quality. We end with a discussion of the importance of carefully aligning conceptual understandings with measurement approaches.

• White, Mark Christopher; Maher, Bridget & Rowan, Brian (2022). A Framework for Addressing Instrumentation Biases When Using Observation Systems as Outcome Measures in Instructional Interventions. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness. ISSN 1934-5747. doi: 10.1080/19345747.2022.2081275. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Many educational interventions seek to change teachers’ instructional practice. Standards-based observation systems are a common and useful tool to understand these interventions’ impact, but the process of measuring instructional change with observation systems is highly complex. This paper introduces a framework for examining and understanding potential instrumentation biases that arise when evaluations use observation systems to understand instructional change. The framework systematizes two processes that all studies must undertake: (1) the process of operationalizing the construct of teaching quality, and (2) the process of data collection. A study that engages in these processes generates observation scores that capture their own raters’ perspectives on specific segments of instruction. These scores must be generalized to draw conclusions about the intended constructs and settings. Systematizing these two processes highlights the necessary steps of a validity argument supporting evaluation conclusions and the instrumentation biases that threaten such conclusions. The framework is illustrated with an example from our recent work, which sought to understand instructional change since the adoption of the Common Core State Standards (CCSS).

• Lycurgus, Timothy; Hansen, Ben & White, Mark Christopher (2022). Conjuring Power from a Theory of Change: The PWRD Method for Trials with Anticipated Variation in Effects. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness. ISSN 1934-5747. doi: 10.1080/19345747.2022.2142178. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We present an aggregation scheme that increases power in randomized controlled trials and quasi-experiments when the intervention possesses a robust and well-articulated theory of change. Intervention studies using longitudinal data often include multiple observations on individuals, some of which may be more likely to manifest a treatment effect than others. An intervention’s theory of change provides guidance as to which of those observations are best situated to exhibit that treatment effect. Our power-maximizing weighting for repeated-measurements with delayed-effects scheme, PWRD aggregation, converts the theory of change into a test statistic with improved asymptotic relative efficiency, delivering tests with greater statistical power. We illustrate this method on an IES-funded cluster randomized trial testing the efficacy of a reading intervention designed to assist early elementary students at risk of falling behind their peers. The salient theory of change holds program benefits to be delayed and non-uniform, experienced after a student’s performance stalls. In this instance, the PWRD technique’s effect on power is found to be comparable to that of doubling the number of clusters in the experiment.

• White, Mark Christopher; Maher, Bridget & Rowan, Brian (2022). Common Core-Related Shifts in English Language Arts Teaching from 2010 to 2018: A Video Study. The Elementary school journal. ISSN 0013-5984. 123(1). doi: 10.1086/720732. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The Common Core State Standards (CCSS) for English language arts (ELA) called for several “key shifts” in classroom instructional practice. This study combined archived video data on classroom teaching collected in 2010 with new video data on classroom teaching collected in 2018 to conduct a pre-/postexamination of the extent to which this corpus of lessons showed the kinds of key shifts in ELA instruction called for by the CCSS. The data presented in the article show meaningful time trends consistent with some, but not all, of the key shifts in ELA instruction called for by the CCSS. These findings are discussed in light of the goals of the study and prior research on post-CCSS instruction in classrooms across the country.

• Rowan, Brian & White, Mark Christopher (2021). The Common Core State Standards Initiative as an Innovation Network. The American Educational Research Journal (AERJ). ISSN 0002-8312. 59(1), p. 73–111. doi: 10.3102/00028312211006689. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This article analyzes the Common Core State Standards initiative as an innovation network. Using narrative data and quantitative analysis of hypertext linkages on the World Wide Web, we describe a network of about 3200 organizations that arose to scale up the Common Core State Standards and link them to aligned academic resources such as assessments, instructional materials, and professional development. By 2017, this network developed a “core-periphery” topology. The article describes structures and processes at the core of the network that created strong pressures for construction of a coherent ecosystem of instruction for American education and processes at the periphery that that worked against use of this system by most organizations in the network.

• Dalland, Cecilie Pedersen; White, Mark Christopher; Blikstad-Balas, Marte & Roe, Astrid (2021). Individualised home schooling – at odds with the equity ambitions in the Nordic model of education? Education In The North. ISSN 0424-5512. 28(3), p. 204–221. doi: 10.26203/9dvz-5f97. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Within the Norwegian education system, equity, equal opportunities and education for all are fundamental principles, regardless of one’s socioeconomic background and academic achievement. In this article, we discuss how these ideals of equity for all students were challenged during the period of home-schooling that took place amid the Covid19 pandemic in the spring of 2020. The analysis draws on data from an anonymous, national digital survey for parents/caretakers with children in Norwegian elementary and secondary schools in grades 1 to 10 (N = 4,642). To describe typical teaching during home-schooling, the survey consists of both closed and open-ended questions. Overall, our findings show that parents had different experiences of home-schooling due to their levels of education, their work situations and the students’ access to equipment. The most important factors for ensuring equity during this period of home-schooling were providing the students with access to relevant equipment and support at home with regard to completing their schoolwork.

• White, Mark Christopher (2021). A Validity Framework for the Design and Analysis of Studies Using Standardized Observation Systems. In Klette, Kirsti; Blikstad-Balas, Marte & Tengberg, Michael (Ed.), Ways of Analyzing Teaching Quality.Potentials and Pitfalls. Universitetsforlaget. ISSN 9788215045061. p. 89–120. doi: 10.18261/9788215045054-2021-03. Full text in Research Archive
• Rowan, Brian; Maher, Bridget & White, Mark (2020). The Use of Video Data in Reading Research. In Moje, Elizabeth Birr; Afflerbach, Peter P; Enciso, Patricia & Lesaux, Nonie K (Ed.), Handbook of Reading Research, Volume V. Taylor & Francis Group. ISSN 9781315676302. doi: 10.4324/9781315676302. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This paper discusses the use of video data in reading research and describes potential directions and application of video data in this area of scholarship. The chapter describes existing literature and trends in video data collection, storage, archiving, and use in studying teaching and learning, and then turns to discuss the evolution in video technologies for educational research. Next, the paper discusses use of video data in qualitative and quantitative research in reading, important practices for storing and retrieving video data, and potential future directions in studying reading processes, practices, contexts, and outcomes. The chapter concludes with a description of our current study, Teaching over Time, which uses English Language Arts (ELA) classroom video data collected recently, as well as video data from the same teachers ten years ago, which were stored and archived for future scholarship. Techniques for documenting, storing, labeling, and archiving made this study and use of video data possible to analyze ELA instruction, contexts, and changes in teachers’ practice.

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• Mathé, Nora Elise Hesby; Aashamar, Peter Nicolai; Christensen, Anders Stig; Jakobsson, Martin; Mikander, Pia & Walkert, Michael [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2026). Social studies teaching in Nordic classrooms. doi: https:/www.su.se/english/divisions/department-of-teaching-and-learning/calendar/events/2025-09-16-noksa-nordic-conference-in-social-studies-education. Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher (2025). Bringing Universe Analyses to Large Scale International Assessments. Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher (2022). What does the claim of subject-specificity actually mean empirically?. Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher & Klette, Kirsti (2022). What’s in a Score? Problematizing Interpretations of Observation Scores? Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher (2022). Aligning the Analysis of Observation Scores with Conceptual Understandings of Teaching Quality. Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher & Maher, Bridget (2022). What Value do Standardized Observation Systems Add to the Summative Goals of Teacher Evaluation Systems? Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher (2022). Panel Discussion on Combining Different Data Sources. Full text in Research Archive
• Klette, Kirsti; Luoto, Jennifer Maria & White, Mark Christopher (2021). Bringing the Theory and Measurement Into Alignment: Classroom Observation Systems. Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher & Klette, Kirsti (2021). Rater Error In Standardized Observations of Teaching: Challenges from Latently Continuous Dimensions. Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher; Luoto, Jennifer Maria; Blikstad-Balas, Marte & Klette, Kirsti (2021). Bringing the Theory and Measurement of Teaching into Alignment. Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher (2021). Aligning Considerations of Rater Error in Rater-Mediated Assessments with Modern Validity Theory: A Case Study using Global Teaching Insights. Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher (2021). Moving from Institutional Practices to Challenging the Robustness of Conclusions: The Case of Rater Error. Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher; Maher, Bridget & Rowan, Brian (2020). Using Observation Instruments to Understand Change in Teaching Quality Over Time. Full text in Research Archive
• White, Mark Christopher; Nortvedt, Guri A.; Rohatgi, Anubha & Bjørnsson, Julius Kristjan (2025). Den norske lærerrollen i endring: Resultater fra TALIS 2024. Faculty of Educational Sciences, University of Oslo. doi: https:/www.talis2024.no/downloads/TALIS%202024.pdf. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Den norske skolen er fortsatt preget av positive relasjoner, samarbeid og autonomi. De aller fleste lærere rapporterer at de har positive profesjonelle relasjoner med kollegaer, elever, foreldre og rektorer. Videre gir flertallet av lærerne uttrykk for at de har muligheter til medbestemmelse, at de støtter og stoler på hverandre, at de bidrar til skoleutvikling, og at de har en betydelig grad av autonomi i undervisningen. De fleste rektorene oppgir at de samarbeider med lærere for å løse atferdsproblemer blant elevene, og at de støtter lærere i utviklingen av deres undervisningspraksis. Behov for støttepersonell i skolen. På spørsmål om hva som hindrer skolen å kunne tilby undervisning av høy kvalitet, gir et mindretall av rektorene uttrykk for at det er behov for flere kvalifiserte lærere. Det største personellbehovet rektorene forteller om, er behovet for støttepersonell. Norske klasserom er blitt mer heterogene. Sammensetningen av elever i den norske skolen har endret seg betydelig siden 2018. Sammenlignet med 2018 rapporterer en høyere andel av de norske lærerne i 2024 at mer enn en tredjedel av elevene i klassene deres har vanskeligheter med å forstå norsk, er faglig svake, har spesielle opplæringsbehov og/eller atferdsvansker. Norge har tradisjonelt sett vært mindre heterogent enn mange andre deltakerland i TALIS, også sammenlignet med de andre nordiske landene. Med tanke på heterogenitet er elevsammensetningen i 2024 blitt mer lik den vi finner i de andre nordiske landene. Utfordringer knyttet til læreres tro på at de kan motivere elever. Fire av ti norske lærere tror at de kan motivere elever som viser liten interesse for skolearbeidet, og 55 prosent tror at de kan hjelpe elevene til å verdsette læring. Sammenlignet med lærere i det andre nordiske landene, er det omtrent 20 prosentpoeng færre norske lærere som tror at de kan få til dette. Utfordringer knyttet til elevenes motivasjon. Halvparten av lærerne rapporterer at de kan stole på at elevene gjør arbeidsoppgavene sine. Bare én av tre lærere gir uttrykk for at de kan stole på at elevene gjør leksene sine. Mer stress og uro. Flere lærere i 2024 enn i 2018 rapporterer om et høyt nivå av stress på jobben, og en økende andel av lærerne svarer at jobben deres påvirker deres egen helse negativt. Økningen i stress er spesielt relatert til håndtering av enkeltelevers behov og til klasseledelse. Når vi spør nyutdannede lærere i 2024, er det færre som planlegger å bli i yrket i mange år, sammenlignet med hva de svarte i 2018. Lærere trives på jobb, men føler seg mindre verdsatt av samfunnet. De fleste lærere gir uttrykk for at de liker å undervise, og at de er fornøyde med arbeidsforholdene (utenom lønnen). De har også høy tiltro til at de mestrer de fleste aspektene av jobben, og de mener at de har positive relasjoner til rektor, elever og foreldre. Flertallet gir også uttrykk for at de føler seg verdsatt av elever og foreldre. Men færre lærere rapporterer at de føler seg verdsatt av samfunnet, og flere lærere er misfornøyde med lønnen sin, sammenlignet med lærerne i 2018 og i de andre nordiske landene. Nyutdannede lærere gir i større grad enn før uttrykk for at lærerutdanningen var av høy kvalitet. Omtrent seks av ti lærere som ble utdannet etter 2017, er enige i at deres egen lærerutdanning hadde høy kvalitet. Lærere som ble utdannet etter 2017, rapporterte i større grad at lærerutdanningen var av høy kvalitet enn de lærerne som ble utdannet mellom 2003 og 2017. Nyutdannede lærere tas godt imot i skolen. Blant lærere med mindre enn to års erfaring har omtrent ni av ti deltatt i enten et formelt innføringsprogram eller uformelle innføringsaktiviteter ment for å støtte dem i overgangen fra utdanning til å praktisere som lærer. Dette er en betydelig endring fra TALIS 2018, som viste at nyutdannede lærere i liten grad ble fulgt opp. Blant de nyutdannede lærerne som fikk oppfølging ved ansettelse, oppgir 80 prosent at de fikk veiledning fra rektor eller erfarne lærere. Dagens tilbud om faglig og yrkesmessig utvikling har lite å si for undervisningspraksis. Lærere rapporterer at de deltok i mer faglig og yrkesmessig utvikling i 2024 enn de gjorde i 2018, men de fleste mener at disse utviklingsaktivitetene i liten grad påvirket undervisningspraksisen deres. I 2024 er det flere lærere enn i 2018 som rapporterer om et behov for å lære mer om hvordan de kan imøtekomme behov hos enkeltelever. Rektorer er stort sett fornøyde i jobben sin. De fleste rektorer melder at de er fornøyde med jobben. De får støtte fra de ansatte på skolen og har innflytelse på viktige beslutninger. Omtrent 70 prosent er fornøyde med arbeidsbetingelsene (unntatt lønnen), mens omtrent halvparten er fornøyde med lønnen. Som for lærere er det en nedgang i andelen rektorer som mener at de blir verdsatt av samfunnet, sammenlignet med TALIS 2018. Rektorer rapporterer om høyt stressnivå i jobben. Én av fem rektorer gir uttrykk for at jobben har negative konsekvenser for deres egen helse. Stresset oppstår i stor grad på grunn av fravær av personell, administrativt arbeid og behovet for å imøtekomme elevenes behov for tilpasning. Rektorer rapporterer om begrenset tid til pedagogisk ledelse. Rektorer rapporterer at de bruker mer tid på administrative oppgaver og på å støtte lærere i arbeidet med å løse atferdsproblemer i klasserommet, mens de bruker mindre tid på å observere undervisning, å gi tilbakemelding og å ansvarliggjøre lærere med tanke på kvalitet i undervisningen og elevenes læringsutbytte. Lav svarprosent på spørreskjemaet. På grunn av lav svarprosent er det nødvendig å ta noen forbehold når funn fra undersøkelsen i 2024 skal tolkes. Du kan lese mer om dette i det tekniske vedlegget

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