GenEd: Why do educational difficulties run in families?

• Donolato, Enrica; caviola, sara; masi, alice; Lervåg, Arne & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Attitudes and emotions in the context of mathematical learning: A systematic review and meta-analysis of intervention studies. Educational Research Review. ISSN 1747-938X. doi: https:/www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1747938X26000540. Full text in Research Archive
• Demange, Perline Aline Delle; Nivard, Michel G.; Torvik, Fartein Ask; Eilertsen, Espen Moen; Cheesman, Rosa Catherine Gillespie & Nordmo, Magnus [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2026). No evidence of parental mental health influencing children’s academic achievement: a within-family study. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. ISSN 1018-8827. doi: 10.1007/s00787-026-03100-9. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Children of parents with psychopathology generally perform less well in school than their peers. Parental symptoms might not, however, account for their lower achievement, as other familial factors might contribute. To examine the role of parental symptoms, we analyse data from 9,000 families in the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Study (MoBa). Parents reported their symptoms of anxiety, depression, ADHD, eating disorders, and alcohol use disorder during pregnancy and during their child’s childhood. Children in 5th grade (aged 10) completed nationally-standardised tests of mathematics, reading comprehension, and English (as an additional language). Comparing children who are cousins (children-of-siblings design), we controlled for unmeasured factors shared among family members that confound the relationship between parental mental health and children’s academic achievement. We found small associations between greater parental symptoms and lower scores in reading and mathematics (− 0.060 ≤ β ≤ −0.013). However, these associations were no longer significant when comparing cousins whose parents differ in mental health. Results suggest that parental symptoms do not exert a direct, clinically meaningful effect on children’s academic achievement. Although non-significant, associations with parental symptoms measured close to the child’s academic test are less attenuated than those measured during pregnancy. Notably, comparison between the overall MoBa sample and the children-of-siblings samples suggests ascertainment differences that hinder strong generalisations. Our findings underscore the importance of quasi-experimental family designs in identifying modifiable targets in intergenerational health and education research. Supporting parental mental health is crucial but its direct effect on children’s achievement may be smaller than often thought.

• Hagen, Åste Marie Mjelve; Rogde, Kristin; Lervåg, Arne Ola; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Norbury, Courtenay Frazier (2026). Long-term prognosis of low language proficiency in children. The Cochrane library. doi: 10.1002/14651858.cd015268.pub2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Low language proficiency (LLP) affects up to 10% of children, depending on how it is defined, and is a known risk factor for academic and social difficulties. Despite growing awareness, there is limited consensus on the long‐term consequences of LLP across quality of life domains. This review synthesises evidence from longitudinal cohort studies to evaluate long‐term risks associated with LLP identified between ages four and eight, with follow‐up from age 12 onwards. Objectives To examine the long‐term outcomes of children aged four to eight years with low language proficiency (LLP), in terms of language, literacy, and quality of life across five WHO domains (physical, psychological, independence, social relationships, and environment). Search methods CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, ERIC, and 17 other databases were searched without language or date restrictions. In addition, reference lists were checked, citation searching was conducted, and study authors were contacted to identify additional studies. The most recent search was completed in March 2025. Selection criteria We included prospective or retrospective longitudinal cohort studies that identified children with LLP between ages four and eight years and assessed outcomes at age 12 or older. Studies could include comparison groups or single‐cohort designs. LLP was defined either using standardised diagnostic criteria (≤ –1 SD on normed language measures, encompassing ~10–15% of the population) or clinical judgement by qualified professionals. Data collection and analysis We extracted data on language, literacy, and World Health Organization (WHO) quality of life domains and used robust variance estimation (RVE) meta‐analysis models, including hierarchical and correlated effects models. Effect sizes were reported as Hedges' g or risk ratios (RR), with Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) applied to each outcome domain. We conducted sensitivity and moderator analyses and assessed small‐study effects. Main results We included 80 studies; 72 contributed to meta‐analyses across 15 independent cohorts (≈ 28,828 participants). Studies were published between 1982 and 2024 and conducted in Europe and North America. Risk of bias, assessed across study participation, attrition, and outcome measurement, varied; only three studies were at low risk across all assessed domains, with study attrition most frequently rated as moderate or high. Language outcomes showed large adverse associations in long‐term follow‐up (145 effect sizes; 11 cohorts; Hedges’ g = –1.36, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) –1.80 to –0.92; moderate certainty). Literacy outcomes were similarly affected (86 effect sizes; 7 cohorts; g = –1.12, 95% CI –1.28 to –0.96; high certainty). Physical outcomes were reported in only one study and could not be meta‐analysed; evidence was insufficient to draw conclusions. Psychological outcomes showed moderate adverse associations (91 effect sizes; 7 cohorts; g = –0.50, 95% CI –0.80 to –0.19; moderate certainty), with risk ratio analyses indicating lower probability of favourable psychological outcomes (RR = 0.53, 95% CI 0.42 to 0.67). Independence outcomes showed smaller and more uncertain associations (17 effect sizes; 2 cohorts; g = –0.59, 95% CI –1.35 to 0.18; low certainty). Social relationship outcomes showed moderate adverse associations (35 effect sizes; 6 cohorts; g = –0.64, 95% CI –1.35 to 0.07; moderate certainty). Environmental outcomes showed large but imprecise adverse associations (23 effect sizes; 5 cohorts; g = –1.10, 95% CI –1.47 to –0.73; moderate certainty). Across domains, sensitivity analyses supported the robustness of findings, although degrees of freedom were often low due to the limited number of independent cohorts. Where binary outcome data were available, risk ratio estimates were directionally consistent with continuous outcomes but frequently imprecise. Authors' conclusions Early low language proficiency (LLP) is consistently associated with substantial long‐term language and literacy difficulties. LLP is also associated with poorer psychological well‐being and social relationship outcomes later in life, with moderate certainty of evidence. Associations with independence outcomes are smaller and more uncertain, reflecting limited data and low certainty. Environmental outcomes, including education, employment, and societal participation, show large adverse associations, although estimates are imprecise due to the small number of contributing cohorts. Physical health outcomes remain under‐researched. Taken together, these findings indicate that childhood LLP is not a transient delay but a marker of enduring developmental vulnerability, underscoring the need for sustained identification and support across developmental stages. Further high‐quality longitudinal studies are needed, particularly in under‐represented outcome domains.

• Eilertsen, Espen Moen; Eftedal, Nikolai Haahjem; Cheesman, Rosa Catherine Gillespie; Ayorech, Ziada; Ebeltoft, Joakim Coleman & Sunde, Hans Fredrik [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2026). Multivariate maternal effects across the internalizing–externalizing spectrum in childhood: results from the Norwegian mother, father, and child cohort study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. ISSN 0021-9630. p. 1–13. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.70111. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background From a functionalist perspective, parenting behaviors have adaptive functions and are partly expressions of genetic variation. Maternal genes that have effects on children are often referred to as indirect maternal genetic effects. Indirect genetic effects provide a means for measuring the role of parenting without the need for specifying the relevant parental behaviors. We studied indirect maternal genetic effects to address both the importance and commonality of parenting across the internalizing–externalizing spectrum of behavior problems in childhood. We further addressed how indirect genetic effects impact our understanding of direct genetic effects if not accounted for. Methods Utilizing data from the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), our analyses involved 42,423 children and their mothers. Both pedigree and genotype data were used to infer genetic relationships. We applied multivariate latent variable models to distinguish indirect maternal genetic effects and direct offspring genetic effects on seven measures of internalizing–externalizing behaviors. Results Our findings indicate significant maternal genetic influences, explaining 7%–18% of the variance across internalizing–externalizing behaviors. A general maternal effect common across behaviors could adequately account for most of the variability. The analyses further indicate that direct child genetic effects appear smaller and more complex when indirect maternal genetic effects are modeled simultaneously. Conclusions By summarizing the effects of parenting with indirect maternal genetic effects, we show a substantial contribution of parents with respect to internalizing–externalizing behaviors in childhood. Although parenting is multifaceted, the effects of parenting are general and can succinctly be described as a single common dimension. Further, our study demonstrates that direct genetic effects appear smaller and more complex when maternal genetic effects are accounted for, highlighting the confounding potential of parental effects in understanding the role of genetic differences in child psychopathology.

• Hulme, Charles; Donolato, Enrica & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). Effects of educational interventions. In Thapar, Anita; Pine, Daniel; Cortese, Samuele; Creswell, Cathy; Ford, Tasmin; Leckman, James & Stringaris, Argyris (Ed.), Rutter's Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology. Wiley-Blackwell. ISSN 9781119906063. p. 477–489. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Both interdisciplinary and international in scope, Rutter's Child and Adolescent Psychiatry delivers an expansive overview of the current state of the field, covering the latest research, advancements and technological developments. This Seventh Edition has undergone an extensive revision process, including a comprehensive review of chapter outlines and two stages of critical review for each full chapter by the editorial team.

• Grande, German; Amland, Tonje; Bergen, Elsje van; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2025). The intergenerational impact of mothers and fathers on children’s word reading development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. ISSN 0021-9630. 66(7), p. 946–955. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.14107. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Numerous studies have investigated the associations between the home literacy environment (HLE) and children's word reading skills. However, these associations may partly reflect shared genetic factors since parents provide both the reading environment and their child's genetic predisposition to reading. Hence, the relationship between the HLE and children's reading is genetically confounded. To address this, parents' reading abilities have been suggested as a covariate, serving as a proxy for genetic transmission. The few studies that have incorporated this covariate control have made no distinction between the HLE reported by each parent or controlled for different skills in parents and children. We predicted children's reading development over time by the reading abilities of both parents as covariates and both parents' self-reported HLE as predictors. Methods We analyzed data from 242 unrelated children, 193 mothers, and 144 fathers. Children's word reading was assessed in Grades 1 and 3, and parents' word reading was assessed on a single occasion. Predictors of children's reading development included literacy resources and shared reading activities. Results Children's reading in Grade 3 was predicted by mothers' engagement in reading activities and by literacy resources at home, even after controlling for the genetic proxy of parental reading abilities. The longitudinal rate of change from Grades 1 to 3 was not associated with the HLE or parental reading. Conclusions Our finding that parental reading skills predicted children's word reading beyond children's initial word reading underscores the importance of considering genetic confounding in research on the home environment. Beyond parental reading abilities, children's skills were predicted by literacy resources in the home and by how often mothers engage in reading activities with their children. This suggests true environmental effects.

• Sunde, Hans Fredrik; Eilertsen, Espen Moen & Torvik, Fartein Ask (2024). Understanding indirect assortative mating and its intergenerational consequences. BioRxiv. ISSN 0362-4331. doi: 10.1101/2024.06.21.600029. Full text in Research Archive

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• Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). Når språk, lesing eller matematikk er vanskelig En grunnbok. Fagbokforlaget. ISBN 9788245046564. 470 p. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hvert år står omtrent 50 000 barn klare til skole-start fulle av forventninger. Dessverre vet vi også at mange av dem etter en tid møter skuffelse, frustrasjon og nederlag fordi de strever med å lære seg ferdigheter som andre ser ut til å tilegne seg nærmest uanstrengt. For dem av oss som mestret skolen uten nevneverdige utfordringer, er det nok vanskelig å forstå fullt ut hvor krevende det er å ha lærevansker, ikke minst for barnet selv, men også for lærere, foreldre og andre tett på som gjerne vil hjelpe. Dette er en grunnbok om lærevansker. Den gir en fullstendig oversikt over hva lærevansker er, over årsaker til lærevansker og hva slags støttesystemer som finnes for elever med lærevansker. Dessuten går boken inn på alt vi vet om språk-, lese- og matematikkvansker, og den diskuterer definisjoner, forklaringer, kartlegging og tiltak. Boken er skrevet for studenter i lærerutdanning og spesialpedagogikk, men kan med fordel leses av alle som jobber med elever i skolen eller støtte-systemet rundt elevene (for eksempel ansatte i PP-tjenesten, Statped, barne- og ungdoms-psykiatrien).

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• Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Sandsør, Astrid Marie Jorde; Rege, Mari & Markussen, Simen (2026). Lærdommen fra Pisa? Norge trenger bedre nasjonale målinger, ikke færre. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Hagen, Åste Mjelve; Lervåg, Arne & Rogde, Kristin (2026). Tidlig innsats er ikke nok: Effekten av språkstimulering i barnehage er av begrenset varighet. [Journal]. FORSKNING.NO. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Wandem, Fredrik Solli (2026). Hva om arbeidsminnet ikke finnes? [Journal]. FORSKNING.NO. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Når bør vi gripe inn hvis barn sliter med å lære? [Journal]. FORSKNING.NO. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Hanne Finstad / Forskerfabrikken Podkast. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Reading Disorders and genetics: Effects and transfer effects from language and reading interventions. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Hulme, Charles; snowling, maggie; west, gillian; Crane, claudine & Campos, Diego Gonzalez (2026). The efficacy of early language intervention on reading: an individual participant data (IPD) analysis. Full text in Research Archive
• Rønneberg, Vibeke; Amland, Tonje; Solheim, Oddny Judith; Lervåg, Arne; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Ertesvåg, Sigrun K. [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2026). Improving Reading And Mathematical Skills Through an Integrated Intervention: A Multi-site Randomized Trial. doi: https:/www.the-mcls.org/conferences/mcls-2026-padua. Full text in Research Archive
• Lervåg, Arne; Wang, Lei & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Developmental Dynamics between Reading Comprehension, Word Reading and Vocabulary in Norwegian Second to Third Graders. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose — It is well established that language skills, such as vocabulary, are important precursors for word reading and reading comprehension. However, theories about reading development are not very specific about how different components impact reading during various developmental phases. This study examines the developmental relationship between reading comprehension, vocabulary, and word reading skills in an early phase of reading. Models, which separate variation within and between the children, and those that do not, are used. Method — 288 children, recruited 4 months after the start of formal reading instruction, were measured four times over 1.5 years. Different cross-lagged panel models were estimated to test the direction of influence between the development of reading comprehension, vocabulary skills, and word reading skills. Results — Models, separating within-person from between-person variation, clearly showed that changes in word-reading skills were associated with later reading comprehension skills. This was less clear in the models that mix up the within-person and between-person variation. Some, but fewer, dynamic relations were found for vocabulary and reading comprehension, and the ones found were in models that mix up the within-person and between-person variance. Conclusions — The findings provide important information about the developmental dynamics of reading in a relatively early phase of development. Further, the results inform us about the importance of choosing the appropriate model if we are interested in how a child’s reading skills develop over time.

• Donolato, Enrica; Wahl, Hedda Novang; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2026). Math anxiety and math skills development in children: a longitudinal study on early predictors. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction. Math anxiety and math skills are closely intertwined, yet their early predictors in childhood remain poorly understood. Previous research has identified cognitive and affective predictors of math performance, including intelligence and working memory (Amland et al., 2025), knowledge of mathematical symbols (Szczygieł et al., 2024), and general and math anxiety (Barroso et al., 2021; Caviola et al., 2022). Similarly, there is evidence that math anxiety is shaped by general anxiety (Szczygieł et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2014), working memory (Pellizzoni et al., 2022), and knowledge of mathematical symbols (Szczygieł et al., 2024). Despite extensive correlational evidence, few longitudinal studies have systematically examined cognitive and affective predictors of math anxiety and math skills in school-age children. Research Aims. The goal of this study is to examine children’s math anxiety and math skills development and identify their cognitive and affective predictors in a sample of children followed up from kindergarten to primary school. Materials and Methods. The sample consisted of 259 children (52% boys; M age = 5.5 years at project onset). At the first time point, during their final year of preschool, children completed assessments of cognitive abilities, numeracy skills, and general anxiety. From Grade 3 to Grade 6, children were assessed annually on math anxiety (Achievement Emotions Questionnaire–Math Anxiety; AEQ-MA), arithmetic fluency (Test of Basic Arithmetic and Numeracy Skills; TOBANS) and a mathematical reasoning (Word Problems subtest of the WISC-IV). Assessments were administrated individually in sessions of approximately 60 minutes during kindergarten or school hours. Results. Growth models are being used to examine math anxiety and math skills and to test early predictors of individual differences in growth. Final results from ongoing analyses will clarify the extent to which early cognitive, numeracy and affective factors contribute to changes in math anxiety and math skills in primary school. Discussion. These findings are expected to contribute to a better understanding of early factors that may place children at risk for unfavourable trajectories in developing math anxiety or poor math skills. The study has implications for early identification, highlighting how targeting foundational skills may support both math skills and mitigate math anxiety. Findings will further inform how these insights can be translated into educational practices to enhance young students’ successful math learning.

• Lervåg, Arne; Wahl, Hedda Novang; Donolato, Enrica & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). The developmental dynamics between math anxiety and math skills: examining three theories. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction. Math anxiety is consistently associated with poorer learning and achievement, yet the direction of this relationship remains debated (e.g., Namkung et al., 2019). Three primary theoretical models explain the link between anxiety and achievement. The reduced competency model suggests that weak math skills generate anxiety. The learning avoidance model proposes that anxiety leads students to disengage from practice and participation, thereby harming performance. The reciprocal model integrates both processes, proposing a cyclical relationship in which poor skills increase anxiety, which in turn further impairs achievement (Carey et al., 2016). Some studies using traditional cross-lagged panel models support reciprocal effects (Gunderson et al., 2018). However, newer Random Intercept-Cross-Lagged Panel Models (RI-CLPMs) control for stable individual differences, allowing clearer examination of within-person changes over time (Hammaker et al., 2015). One five-year study applying RI-CLPMs found that anxiety negatively predicted later math grades within individuals, whereas grades did not predict anxiety. Thus, whereas traditional CLPM findings favor the reciprocal model, RI-CLPM results align more closely with the learning avoidance model. However, this study relied on grades rather than standardized tests, and anxiety was not assessed specifically in testing contexts. Research Aims. The present study uses RI-CLPMs to examine whether developmental relations between math anxiety and achievement vary across anxiety types, providing a more nuanced understanding of how emotions influence children’s mathematical learning. Norwegian students were followed from Grade 3 to Grade 6, with two different measures of anxiety, class anxiety and test anxiety. Methods. Two hundred and fifty children's math anxiety and math word problem skills were tested annually over three years. Results. The results show that earlier higher levels of test anxiety were significantly related to poorer later math skills. For class anxiety, there was a significant relation in the opposite direction. Poor math skills were related to later math class anxiety. In this model, there was also some evidence of a relationship in the opposite direction, but sensitivity tests suggest this might be due to confounders. Further analyses also revealed that the effect of poor math skills on class anxiety was moderated by gender, with higher effect sizes for girls than for boys. Discussion. Support was found for all the above-mentioned three theories of this relationship, but the results suggest types of anxiety and gender might moderate the direction and strength of the relations between anxiety and math skills.

• Keles, Serap; Hagen, Åste Mjelve; Guo, Ling; Hwang, Jin Kyoung & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Effectiveness of Tiered Educational Interventions in Early Childhood: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Tier 2 and Tier 3 Supports. Full text in Research Archive
• Hoel, Mari Sommer; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Gunnerud, Hilde Lowell (2026). Pragmatic language in children with Pragmatic Language Impairment (PLI): A systematic review and Meta-Analysis. Full text in Research Archive
• Berg, Karianne; Porsanger, Camilla Adleide; Rydland, Veslemøy; Olsen, Kathrin & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Language exposure to the Sámi language in preschool and at home in indigenous children: Does it predict language and emergent literacy? Full text in Research Archive
• Wandem, Fredrik Solli & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Kort forklart: Hvorfor er tidlig innsats så viktig? doi: https:/www.uv.uio.no/spedaims/aktuelt/podkast/det-virker/kort-forklart-tidlig-innsats.html. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  I barnehagen eller skolen kan det være små tegn. Et barn som strever med språk. En elev som ikke helt får tak på bokstavene. Eller en som faller litt utenfor faglig. Nesten uten at vi legger merke til det. Hva vi gjør da? Venter vi og ser det an? Eller griper vi inn tidlig?

• Torvik, Fartein Ask; Stoltenberg, Camilla; Flatø, Martin & Monstad, Karin (2025). Barn har rett til kunnskap. Full text in Research Archive
• Høgetveit, Anne Mari; Donolato, Enrica; Canrinus, Esther Tamara & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). A Meta-Analysis of the Mathematical Skills in Children with Developmental Language Disorder. doi: https:/www.earli.org/events/earli2025. Full text in Research Archive
• Beck, Kathryn Christine; Reisel, Liza & Torvik, Fartein Ask (2025). Forskere er uenige om fleksibel skolestart. [Journal]. Kilden. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Opptakssystemet favoriserer de eldste skolebarna, slår forsker fast. Er fleksibel skolestart løsningen?

• Maurer, Michelle Nina; Campos, Diego Gonzalez; Gowenlock, Anna E.; Norbury, Courtenay Frazier & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). The relationship between socioeconomic factors and oral language in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Full text in Research Archive
• Walquist-Sørli, Line; Nergård-Nilssen, Trude & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). Early speech sound difficulties and its relationship with language and reading. A meta-analysis and a longitudinal study. Full text in Research Archive
• Flatø, Martin; Torvik, Fartein Ask; Monstad, Karin & Stoltenberg, Camilla (2025). Vi har et skrikende behov for kunnskap om barn. doi: https:/www.altinget.no/artikkel/vi-har-et-skrikende-behov-for-kunnskap-om-barn. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Fallende skoleprestasjoner og økt fravær avdekker et skrikende behov for kunnskap for å møte vår tids utfordringer. Til det trenger vi registre fra skoler og barnehager, skriver Martin Flatø, Fartein Ask Torvik, Karin Monstad og Camilla Stoltenberg.

• Torvik, Fartein Ask (2024). Forskere finner forskjeller i hjernen til barn med ulikt oppvekstmiljø. [Internet]. forskning.no. Full text in Research Archive
• Torvik, Fartein Ask (2024). Slik går fattigdom og psykiske lidelser i arv i Norge. [Internet]. forskning.no. Full text in Research Archive

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