Monica Melby-Lervåg

Melby-Lervåg, M. & Hulme, C. (2010). Serial and Free Recall in children can be improved by training: Evidence for the importance of phonological and semantic representations in immediate memory tasks. Psychological Science, 21(11), 1694- 1700

Melby-Lervåg, M., Lyster, S.A.H., & Hulme, C. (2012). Phonological skills and their role in learning to read: A meta-analytic review.  Psychological Bulletin, 138(2), 322-352

Melby-Lervåg, M. & Hulme, C. (2012). Is working memory training effective? A meta-analytic review. Developmental Psychology, doi: 10.1037/a0028228. Free Download

Melby-Lervåg, M., Lervåg, A., et al. & Hulme, C. (2012). Nonword-Repetition Ability Does Not  Appear to Be a Causal Influence on Children’s Vocabulary Development Psychological Science, doi: 10.1177/0956797612443833

Melby-Lervåg, M. & Lervåg A. (2012). Oral Language Skills Moderate Nonword Repetition Skills in  Children with Dyslexia: A Meta-analysis of the role of Nonword Repetition Skills in Dyslexia. Scientific Studies of Reading, 16(1),  1-34. Free download

Melby-Lervåg, M. & Lervåg, A. (2011). Cross-linguistic transfer of oral language, decoding,  phonological awareness and reading comprehension.  Journal of Research in Reading, 1, 114-   135. Free download

Melby-Lervåg, M. & Lervåg, A. (2013). Reading comprehension and its underlying   components in second language learners: A Meta-analysis of Studies Comparing First and  Second Language Learners.  Psychological Bulletin, online first Free downlaod

Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2011). Effekten av språkstimulering i førskolelader [i.e. førskolealder] på senere leseforståelse : hva kan forskning fortelle oss?. Spesialpedagogikk.  ISSN 0332-8457.  76(2), s 41- 51

Lervåg, Arne Ola & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2009). Muntlig språk, ordavkoding og leseforståelse hos tospråklige: En sammenfatning av empiriske studier. Norsk pedagogisk tidsskrift.  ISSN 0029-2052.  93(4), s 264- 279 . Free Download

Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M., & (2012). Current Evidence Does not Support the Claims  made for CogMed Working Memory Training. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition. Online first.

Melby-Lervåg, M. & Lervåg, A. (2014). Effects from educational interventions on reading comprehension and its  underlying components. Child Development Perspectives, Volume 8, Issue 2, pages 96–100 DOI: 10.1111/cdep.12068

Hulme, C. & Melby-Lervåg, M. (2016). Effects from Interventions for Psychological Learning and Behavioural Disorders in Children. In 6^th edition of Rutter’s Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Eds. A. Thapar, D.S. Pine et al. PP. 533-545. UK: Wiley Blackwell.

Snowling, M. & Melby-Lervåg, M. (2016). Oral Language Deficits in Familial Dyslexia: A Meta-analysis and Review. Psychological Bulletin, Vol 142(5), May 2016, 498-545. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/bul0000037  FREE DOWNLOAD

Hjetland, H. Brinchman, E.I. Lyster, S.A.H, & Melby-Lervåg, M. (2014). Preschool Predictors of Later Reading  Comprehension Ability: A Systematic Review. Title proposal published in the library of systematic reviews, Campbell  Collaboration. http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/lib/index

Rogde, K. , Hagen, Å.M., Lervåg, A. & Melby-Lervåg, M. (2014). The Effect of Language Comprehension Training on Standardized Tests: A Systematic Review, Title proposal published in the library of systematic reviews, Campbell  Collaboration, http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/lib/index

Rogde, K., Melby-Lervåg, M, & Lervåg, A. (2016). Improving the Linguistic Comprehension Skills of Second- Language Learners In Preschool: A Randomised Trial Study. Online first Journal of research in educational  effectiveness, doi 10.1080/19345747.2016.1171935 

Lervåg, A., Hulme,  C. & Melby-Lervåg, M. (2017). Unpicking the developmental relationships between oral language skills and reading comprehension: It’s simple, but complex. Child Development, doi: 10.1111/cdev.12861

Hagen, Å., Melby-Lervåg, M. & Lervåg, A. (2017).  Improving Language Comprehension in Preschool Children with Language Difficulties: A Cluster Randomized Trial. Journal of Child psychology and Psychiatry, 58(19), 1132-1140    

• Amland, Tonje; Grande, German; Bergen, Elsje van; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne Ola (2026). Parental and early child skills outweigh home numeracy environment in predicting maths development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. ISSN 0021-9630. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.70247.
• Wang, Louie Lei; Wang, Mari Vaage; Eek, Brandlistuen Ragnhild & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). The effect of being assigned to special needs assistance depends on children's types of difficulty. Learning and Individual Differences. ISSN 1041-6080. 132, p. 1–6. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2026.103012. Full text in Research Archive
• Donolato, Enrica; caviola, sara; masi, alice; Lervåg, Arne & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Attitudes and emotions in the context of mathematical learning: A systematic review and meta-analysis of intervention studies. Educational Research Review. ISSN 1747-938X. doi: https:/www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1747938X26000540. Full text in Research Archive
• Nergård-Nilssen, Trude; Furnes, Bjarte Reidar; Caglar-Ryeng, Ømur; Friborg, Oddgeir & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Improving Reading Comprehension Through Language Comprehension and Early Word Reading: A Multisite Randomized Trial. Journal of Educational Psychology. ISSN 0022-0663. 118(4), p. 484–503. doi: 10.1037/edu0001017. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This randomized controlled trial examined the effectiveness of the UiT-ReadWell program, a reading and language intervention for children aged 7–9 (second and third grades) identified as at risk for reading disorders through national reading assessments. The intervention aimed to improve reading comprehension by targeting both language comprehension and decoding (word reading) skills. A total of 415 students were randomly assigned to either the experimental group, which received four weekly 45-min sessions over 24 weeks (92 sessions in total), or the control group, which continued with standard classroom instruction. Primary outcomes included language comprehension and word reading, whereas reading comprehension was assessed as a secondary outcome. Postintervention results demonstrated that students in the UiT-ReadWell program achieved significantly greater improvements than the control group in decoding (standardized mean difference [SMD] = 0.26), language comprehension (SMD = 0.20), and reading comprehension (SMD = 0.26). These gains were sustained at a 6-month follow-up (decoding: SMD = 0.22; language comprehension: SMD = 0.16; reading comprehension: SMD = 0.24). Mediation analyses revealed that improvements in reading comprehension were facilitated by improved word reading and language comprehension, accounting for ∼27% and ∼34% of the total effect, respectively. This study highlights the efficacy of a comprehensive intervention that simultaneously addresses word reading and language comprehension, leading to lasting improvements in reading comprehension. The findings have significant theoretical and practical implications, offering valuable insights for future research and educational practices to support children at risk for reading difficulties.

• Dolean, Dacian; Lervåg, Arne & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). The Effectiveness of a Language ComprehensionIntervention on the Language, Reading, and Writing Skillsof Socioeconomically Disadvantaged Students. Reading Research Quarterly. ISSN 0034-0553. 61(3). doi: 10.1002/rrq.70123. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This pre-registered randomized controlled trial tests the impact of a language comprehension intervention on the language and literacy of 448 upper elementary Roma and non-Roma students from socioeconomically disadvantaged communities. The students from the intervention group participated in 132 language comprehension intervention sessions (designed by a research team) which focused on Tier 2 vocabulary instruction and development of expressive language skills. The control group received language instruction designed by their classroom teachers. The effects were statistically significant immediately after the intervention and 8 months later on the words taught during the intervention, and on the listening and reading comprehension of stories which included taught words. The effects on the standardized vocabulary were statistically significant immediately after the intervention only for the students with weaker initial standardized vocabulary. There was also a significant main effect on standardized vocabulary 8 months after the intervention. There were no statistically significant effects on standardized tests of word reading, written composition, listening and reading comprehension. When controlling for compliance, results showed the same pattern, but with slightly larger effect sizes. Monolingual Roma and non-Roma students improved at a similar rate on most measures, but the effects were significantly smaller for bilingual Roma students on vocabulary and listening comprehension tests which included taught words. Thus, language comprehension interventions targeting socioeconomically disadvantaged students can have limited positive effects on the language and literacy development. Future studies should examine whether more comprehensive interventions targeting broader aspects of children's lives might have more profound effects.

• Hagen, Åste Mjelve; Rogde, Kristin; Lervåg, Arne; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Norbury, Courtenay Frazier (2026). Long-term prognosis of low language proficiency in children: Report. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews.
• Yang, Junyi; Furnes, Bjarte Reidar; Morken, Frøydis; Hanssen, Natallia Bahdanovich; Lie, Janaina Hartveit & Melby-Lervåg, Monica [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2026). Screen Use and Children’s Language Development From Ages 5 to 7 Years. JAMA pediatrics. ISSN 2168-6203. doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2026.3490. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Importance: Concerns about screen use and early language development are widespread, and prior research has reported mixed findings. Many studies have not distinguished baseline differences from developmental change, leaving uncertainty about whether screen use is associated with actual language development in early childhood. Objective: To examine associations between children’s and parental screen use and children’s language development from ages 5 to 7 years. Design, Setting, and Participants: This population-based prospective cohort study included children recruited through municipalities across Norway in 2023. Children were followed up annually for 3 waves. Data were analyzed from September 2025 to March 2026. Exposures: Parent-reported child daily screen time (weekday and weekend weighted average), child digital device ownership, maternal and paternal daily social media use, and primary parent smartphone screen time at the onset of the study. Main Outcomes and Measures: Receptive vocabulary and receptive grammar were assessed annually using the British Picture Vocabulary Scale and the Test for Reception of Grammar. Latent growth modeling was used to estimate baseline language levels and developmental trajectories from ages 5 to 7 years, adjusting for parental education and household income. Results: A total of 747 children (mean [SD] age, 4.9 [0.3] years; 360 of 718 female [50.1%]) were included in this study. Most screen use indicators were not associated with children’s language growth. However, primary parent smartphone screen time was associated with slower growth in receptive vocabulary; each additional 1 hour per day was associated with 0.42 slower annual growth in receptive vocabulary raw score (95% CI, −0.66 to −0.18). Children who owned a digital device at age 4 to 5 years scored lower at baseline as follows: 5.13 points lower in receptive vocabulary (95% CI, −7.43 to −2.82) and 4.56 points lower in receptive grammar (95% CI, −7.56 to −1.55) compared with children who did not own a device. Conclusions and Relevance: In this cohort study, primary parent smartphone screen time was associated with slower growth in children’s receptive vocabulary, whereas children’s digital device ownership was associated with lower concurrent language performance. These findings highlight the importance of considering screen use within the broader family context when evaluating children’s language development and are potentially informative for parents and clinicians.

• Hagen, Åste Marie Mjelve; Rogde, Kristin; Lervåg, Arne Ola; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Norbury, Courtenay Frazier (2026). Long-term prognosis of low language proficiency in children. The Cochrane library. doi: 10.1002/14651858.cd015268.pub2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Low language proficiency (LLP) affects up to 10% of children, depending on how it is defined, and is a known risk factor for academic and social difficulties. Despite growing awareness, there is limited consensus on the long‐term consequences of LLP across quality of life domains. This review synthesises evidence from longitudinal cohort studies to evaluate long‐term risks associated with LLP identified between ages four and eight, with follow‐up from age 12 onwards. Objectives To examine the long‐term outcomes of children aged four to eight years with low language proficiency (LLP), in terms of language, literacy, and quality of life across five WHO domains (physical, psychological, independence, social relationships, and environment). Search methods CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, ERIC, and 17 other databases were searched without language or date restrictions. In addition, reference lists were checked, citation searching was conducted, and study authors were contacted to identify additional studies. The most recent search was completed in March 2025. Selection criteria We included prospective or retrospective longitudinal cohort studies that identified children with LLP between ages four and eight years and assessed outcomes at age 12 or older. Studies could include comparison groups or single‐cohort designs. LLP was defined either using standardised diagnostic criteria (≤ –1 SD on normed language measures, encompassing ~10–15% of the population) or clinical judgement by qualified professionals. Data collection and analysis We extracted data on language, literacy, and World Health Organization (WHO) quality of life domains and used robust variance estimation (RVE) meta‐analysis models, including hierarchical and correlated effects models. Effect sizes were reported as Hedges' g or risk ratios (RR), with Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) applied to each outcome domain. We conducted sensitivity and moderator analyses and assessed small‐study effects. Main results We included 80 studies; 72 contributed to meta‐analyses across 15 independent cohorts (≈ 28,828 participants). Studies were published between 1982 and 2024 and conducted in Europe and North America. Risk of bias, assessed across study participation, attrition, and outcome measurement, varied; only three studies were at low risk across all assessed domains, with study attrition most frequently rated as moderate or high. Language outcomes showed large adverse associations in long‐term follow‐up (145 effect sizes; 11 cohorts; Hedges’ g = –1.36, 95% Confidence Interval (CI) –1.80 to –0.92; moderate certainty). Literacy outcomes were similarly affected (86 effect sizes; 7 cohorts; g = –1.12, 95% CI –1.28 to –0.96; high certainty). Physical outcomes were reported in only one study and could not be meta‐analysed; evidence was insufficient to draw conclusions. Psychological outcomes showed moderate adverse associations (91 effect sizes; 7 cohorts; g = –0.50, 95% CI –0.80 to –0.19; moderate certainty), with risk ratio analyses indicating lower probability of favourable psychological outcomes (RR = 0.53, 95% CI 0.42 to 0.67). Independence outcomes showed smaller and more uncertain associations (17 effect sizes; 2 cohorts; g = –0.59, 95% CI –1.35 to 0.18; low certainty). Social relationship outcomes showed moderate adverse associations (35 effect sizes; 6 cohorts; g = –0.64, 95% CI –1.35 to 0.07; moderate certainty). Environmental outcomes showed large but imprecise adverse associations (23 effect sizes; 5 cohorts; g = –1.10, 95% CI –1.47 to –0.73; moderate certainty). Across domains, sensitivity analyses supported the robustness of findings, although degrees of freedom were often low due to the limited number of independent cohorts. Where binary outcome data were available, risk ratio estimates were directionally consistent with continuous outcomes but frequently imprecise. Authors' conclusions Early low language proficiency (LLP) is consistently associated with substantial long‐term language and literacy difficulties. LLP is also associated with poorer psychological well‐being and social relationship outcomes later in life, with moderate certainty of evidence. Associations with independence outcomes are smaller and more uncertain, reflecting limited data and low certainty. Environmental outcomes, including education, employment, and societal participation, show large adverse associations, although estimates are imprecise due to the small number of contributing cohorts. Physical health outcomes remain under‐researched. Taken together, these findings indicate that childhood LLP is not a transient delay but a marker of enduring developmental vulnerability, underscoring the need for sustained identification and support across developmental stages. Further high‐quality longitudinal studies are needed, particularly in under‐represented outcome domains.

• Oxman, Matthew Prescott; Cusack, Leila; Verdugo-Paiva, Francisca; Ávila, Camila; Peña, Javiera & Novillo, Francisco [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2026). Do studies of interventions to improve laypeople's critical thinking about health choices assess potential harms? A systematic review. BMJ Open. 16, p. 1–14. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2025-108268. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objectives To make informed health choices, and avoid waste and unnecessary suffering, people need critical thinking skills. However, like health interventions, educational interventions can have adverse effects. In this systematic review, the objective was to assess the extent to which researchers have included potential adverse effects in studies of interventions intended to improve the critical thinking of laypeople about health choices. Design This study was a systematic review, in which we updated the search for an earlier systematic review of intended effects of relevant interventions. The earlier review did not address potential adverse effects. We did not update the analysis of intended effects. Data sources We searched Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL), Embase, Epistemonikos, Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System Online (MEDLINE), Education Resources Information Center (ERIC) and Web of Science up to March 2025. In addition to studies from the original review and updated search, we included any additional studies included in a similar, even earlier review. Our unit of analysis was study report (eg, journal article). Eligibility criteria We included all studies from the original review. We applied the same inclusion criteria to the results of the updated search: the study included a comparison, the population was laypeople and the intervention was intended to improve understanding of ≥1 key concept for informed health choices. Data extraction and synthesis We extracted data about study design (randomised trial or other), participants (children, adolescents or adults), study setting (countries), main intervention (resources delivered to participants) and comparator (usual/no intervention or other). For the analysis, we extracted verbatim text describing any assessment of a potential adverse effect of the intervention. We conducted a narrative synthesis of the extracted data. Results We included 35 reports of quantitative studies (including multi-method and mixed-methods studies). Most often, the study was a randomised trial, the setting was a high-income country, the population included adults (including university students) and the intervention was school-based (including university). In one of the 35 reports, authors described assessing a potential adverse effect. Conclusion To our knowledge, this is the first systematic review assessing the extent to which researchers have assessed adverse effects of any category of educational interventions. Our review shows that researchers generally have not assessed potential adverse effects of interventions to improve critical thinking about health choices. Researchers should pay more attention to such effects, while policymakers and educators making decisions about implementing relevant interventions should consider the lack of evidence. The findings of this study suggest a need for research that facilitates assessing potential adverse effects of interventions to improve critical thinking about health choices.

• Høgetveit, Anne Mari; Canrinus, Esther Tamara; Donolato, Enrica & Melby‐Lervåg, Monica (2026). Research Review: Mathematical skills in children with developmental language disorder – a systematic review and meta‐analysis. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. ISSN 0021-9630. 67(8), p. 1442–14453. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.70138. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Language is an essential skill for learning and academic achievement; therefore, children with developmental language disorder ( DLD ) are at risk for learning difficulties. Previous research has indicated a higher prevalence of mathematical difficulties in children with DLD compared to control children without such difficulties. However, the extent to which DLD and mathematical difficulties co‐occur, as well as the nature of the difficulties, remains unclear. Methods: We performed a meta‐analysis of 30 studies examining the mathematical skills of children with DLD compared to controls and examined moderators related to children's age, cognitive abilities, mathematical domains, diagnostic status, and publication type. Results: Children with DLD performed approximately 1 SD (Hedges' g  = −1.03) below age‐matched controls in mathematics. Group differences were moderated by the type of mathematical task, with children with DLD being more impaired in arithmetic, counting, word problems, and composite math skills than in tasks evaluating Arabic number knowledge and magnitude judgment. There was a small‐study effect, but publication bias was not confirmed. Conclusions: Children with DLD perform considerably more poorly than controls in mathematics and are at a high risk of mathematical difficulties. This supports the notion that these children have a complex profile of difficulties.

• Walquist-Sørli, Line; Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Friborg, Oddgeir & Nergård-Nilssen, Trude (2025). Speech sound skills, language comprehension, and early reading development in poor readers. Journal of Child Language. ISSN 0305-0009. doi: 10.1017/S0305000925100329. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Speech sound skills, language comprehension, and early reading development in poor readers

• Oxman, Matthew Prescott; Chesire, Faith; Mugisha, Michael; Ssenyonga, Ronald; Nsangi, Allen & Oxman, Andrew David [Show all 12 contributors for this article] (2025). Participants’ experiences of potential adverse effects of an intervention to improve critical thinking about health choices: a qualitative cross-trial process evaluation in Kenya, Rwanda and Uganda. BMJ Open. 15(10). doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2025-104236. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Objectives To explore participants’ experiences of potential adverse effects of the Informed Health Choices secondary school intervention across three trial sites and to revise a framework of potential adverse effects of interventions to improve critical thinking about health choices. Design This was a qualitative study. We extracted and analysed relevant data from separate process evaluations in each country. Data came from surveying teachers, observing lessons and group and individual interviews with students, teachers and other stakeholders. We modified and applied framework analysis, including five stages: (1) development of an initial framework of potential adverse effects, (2) familiarisation with the data, (3) indexing, (4) abstraction and synthesis and (5) revising the framework. We applied reflexive strategies individually and as a team. Setting Lower secondary school in five randomly sampled subcounties of Kisumu County in Kenya, districts representing all five provinces in Rwanda, and six districts in the central region of Uganda, between 2022 and 2024. Participants Students and teachers in the intervention arms of the trials, parents of students in the intervention arms and administrators at intervention schools, as well as curriculum developers and policy-makers. Intervention The intervention involved providing teachers with a 2–3-day training workshop, and digital classroom resources, including lesson plans for 10 lessons to be delivered over the course of one semester. Results We generated findings about potential increases in adverse misunderstandings, anxiety related to transfer of learning, adversely experienced cognitive dissonance, work or schoolwork-related stress, inequity, conflicts and waste. The revised framework includes the same categories of potential adverse effects as our initial framework: decision-making harms, psychological harms, equity harms, group and social harms, waste and other harms. We revised other elements of the framework, including definitions of the categories and its structure. Conclusions This study provides insight into the potential adverse effects of interventions to improve critical thinking about health choices. The findings complement those of the trials and country-level process evaluations.

• Hagen, Åste Mjelve; Rogde, Kristin; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2025). Do the Effects of a Preschool Language Intervention Last in the Long Run? A 4-Year Follow-Up Study. Psychological Science. ISSN 0956-7976. 36(12), p. 887–898. doi: 10.1177/09567976251392219. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Childhood language interventions appear promising for improving children’s lives and yielding economic returns. However, few studies have evaluated long-term effects of these interventions. Our study did this using a large, cluster-randomized trial of a preschool intervention for Norwegian children aged 4 to 5 years whose vocabulary was more limited than that of their peers. Results showed that effects on expressive language were maintained at the 7-month follow-up when the children were in first grade and that those with the weakest language skills initially had the largest and most persistent effects. However, 4 years after the intervention, the differences between the intervention and control groups were negligible. Thus, although effects from the preschool language intervention lasted into the first year of elementary school, effects eventually faded and were completely absent in fourth grade. Our findings suggest the need for a sustained approach to language and literacy support, focusing on persistent interventions and high-quality adapted instruction.

• Keles, Serap; Braak, Dieuwer ten; Hagen, Åste Mjelve & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). Validity of Early-Grade Screening Tools in the Three Tier (RTI/MTSS) Model: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Literacy, Language, and Mathematics. Educational Psychology Review. ISSN 1040-726X. 37(4). doi: 10.1007/s10648-025-10077-5. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Abstract The validity of the screening tools used as a part of assigning students to tiers within the Three Tier framework is essential for its quality and success. Although the Three Tier model has been widely implemented, there remains a lack of comprehensive synthesis regarding the accuracy of screening methods used as part of tier assignment procedures. This systematic review and meta-analysis examined empirical studies on the validity of screening and progress monitoring tools in the domains of literacy, language, and mathematics. A comprehensive search of seven databases and search engines yielded 127 eligible studies. The majority of tools identified were used in the literacy domain, with the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) being the most frequently employed. Of the included studies, 18 studies provided data on convergent validity, including concurrent or predictive correlations, and sensitivity and specificity metrics. Using a correlated-hierarchical effects robust variance estimation (CHE-RVE) model, results indicated a moderate overall pooled effect size for correlations ( r  = .51, 95% CI [.35, .64], p  = .001). However, this estimate should be interpreted cautiously, as heterogeneity was very high. Sensitivity and specificity estimates also varied widely across different tools. Findings highlight the limited number of studies assessing the validity of screening tools. Given the central role of screening in identifying students with learning difficulties, further research is needed to improve the precision and reliability of these instruments.

• Wang, Lei; Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Lekhal, Ratib & Wang, Mari Vaage (2025). How are Difficulty Types Related to the Allocation of Special Needs Assistance in Early Childhood Education and Care. Early Childhood Research Quarterly. ISSN 0885-2006. 74, p. 211–220. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2025.10.002. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Early intervention for children with difficulties is crucial for their academic and life outcomes. However, we know little about how special needs assistance (SNA) is allocated to early childhood education and care (ECEC). This study is based on the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) and examines whether children’s difficulty types predict SNA allocation and its hours, with ECEC and demographic variables controlled. We used the maternal questionnaire when children were 5 years old (n = 41,452; 2,340 received SNA). The outcomes were whether the children received SNA and its weekly hours. Children’s difficulties were measured through single questions and rating scales; ECEC factors included a parental satisfaction scale and the caretakers–children ratio. Demographic variables included children’s sex and age, and parental education. We used a zero-inflated Poisson regression for the data analysis. Among the children receiving SNA, 35% had language difficulties, but they received few assisted hours. These children had more severe difficulties compared to those with language difficulties but without SNA. Children with comorbid language and developmental difficulties were most likely to receive SNA (89%) and had the highest number of hours. Children with behavioral problems were least likely to receive SNA. Higher ECEC satisfaction predicted more hours. A higher caretakers–children ratio predicted an increased likelihood of receiving SNA and more hours. In conclusion, children with language difficulties constitute the largest SNA group, yet they receive few hours. ECEC factors are related to detecting and supporting children in need.

• Wang, Louie Lei; Wang, Mari Vaage; Sandsør, Astrid Marie Jorde; Lekhal, Ratib & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). Parental and child factors in children with special education. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. ISSN 0031-3831. doi: 10.1080/00313831.2025.2550278. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Around 10% of school children receive special education (SE), however, we know little about what characterizes these children. This study examined the relationships between parental and child factors in children with SE. It is based on the Norwegian Mother, Father and Child Cohort Study (MoBa). The sample included 1,424 SE children and 35,161 typically developing 8-year-old children. A network analysis was constructed for SE children and non-SE children. Compared to non-SE children, the SE group exhibited lower communication skills, higher language difficulties and more ADHD symptoms. Communication skills and ADHD symptoms were the two most related factors in the SE network. Language abilities in SE children were less influenced by their behavioral and parental factors. Language skills were related to ADHD symptoms in both groups. The selection of assigning children to SE is not biased by gender. SE assessment and instruction should address children’s difficulties in multiple domains.

• Hulme, Charles; Donolato, Enrica & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). Effects of educational interventions. In Thapar, Anita; Pine, Daniel; Cortese, Samuele; Creswell, Cathy; Ford, Tasmin; Leckman, James & Stringaris, Argyris (Ed.), Rutter's Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Psychology. Wiley-Blackwell. ISSN 9781119906063. p. 477–489. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Both interdisciplinary and international in scope, Rutter's Child and Adolescent Psychiatry delivers an expansive overview of the current state of the field, covering the latest research, advancements and technological developments. This Seventh Edition has undergone an extensive revision process, including a comprehensive review of chapter outlines and two stages of critical review for each full chapter by the editorial team.

• Oxman, Matthew Prescott; Chesire, Faith; Mugisha, Michael; Ssenyonga, Ronald; Ngatia, Benson & Nsangi, Allen [Show all 14 contributors for this article] (2025). Development of a framework of potential adverse effects of interventions to improve critical thinking about health choices: A mixed methods study. F1000 Research. 13. doi: https:/f1000research.com/articles/13-1303/v2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background People need critical thinking skills to make well-informed health choices and avoid waste and unnecessary suffering. However, educational interventions can have adverse effects, which is often overlooked. We created a framework of potential harms of interventions to improve critical thinking about health choices. The objective was to identify potential effects and articulate potential mechanisms. We intended to use the framework to inform the development and evaluation of an intervention in Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda. Methods We created an initial framework drawing on two earlier frameworks. We surveyed external experts using Likert-scale and open-ended items, including researchers, educators, and others, in a variety of relevant fields. We emailed the survey to an international advisory network, and all other experts recommended by respondents. We analyzed the quantitative data using descriptive statistics. We conducted a thematic analysis of the qualitative data. We revised the framework based on those results. To identify any effects missing from the revised framework, we individually interviewed a convenience sample of one teacher from each of Kenya, Rwanda, and Uganda. Results We received responses from 38 of 70 external experts (54%). The quantitative survey data suggested respondents agreed with the initial framework overall. However, the qualitative data led to substantial revisions. The revised framework consists of categories of adverse outcomes; outcomes within each category; sub-outcomes; individuals, groups, and populations that might experience each adverse outcome; beneficial outcomes corresponding with adverse outcomes; and potential mechanisms of adverse effects. There are six categories: decision-making harms, psychological harms, equity harms, group and social harms, waste, and other harms. In the interviews with teachers, we did not identify any effects missing from the revised framework. Conclusions As far as we know, the framework is the first tool of its kind for education research. It can be improved upon and adapted

• Wahl, Hedda Novang; Donolato, Enrica; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2025). The psychometric properties of two math anxiety scales in a sample of Norwegian primary school children. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research. ISSN 0031-3831. 70(1), p. 147–163. doi: 10.1080/00313831.2025.2459906. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study evaluated the psychometric properties of the Abbreviated Math Anxiety Scale (AMAS) and the Achievement Emotion Questionnaire – Math Anxiety (AEQ-MA) in a sample of Norwegian primary school students invited to participate during preschool. A total of 222 children completed both scales, and math tasks in Grade 3 and they followed up on the same questionnaires and math tests in Grade 4. Confirmatory factor analysis showed that a two-factor solution best suited the data for both self-report tools, with the AMAS defined by learning anxiety and testing anxiety dimensions and the AEQ-MA defined by the test-related and the class-and-learning math anxiety factors. Both questionnaires showed good internal consistency, measurement invariance across grade levels and genders, and concurrent validity with math tasks. In conclusion, the AMAS and the AEQ-MA present good psychometric properties and are suitable measures for assessing math anxiety in the first grades of formal education among Norwegian children.

• Grande, German; Amland, Tonje; Bergen, Elsje van; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2025). The intergenerational impact of mothers and fathers on children’s word reading development. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. ISSN 0021-9630. 66(7), p. 946–955. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.14107. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Numerous studies have investigated the associations between the home literacy environment (HLE) and children's word reading skills. However, these associations may partly reflect shared genetic factors since parents provide both the reading environment and their child's genetic predisposition to reading. Hence, the relationship between the HLE and children's reading is genetically confounded. To address this, parents' reading abilities have been suggested as a covariate, serving as a proxy for genetic transmission. The few studies that have incorporated this covariate control have made no distinction between the HLE reported by each parent or controlled for different skills in parents and children. We predicted children's reading development over time by the reading abilities of both parents as covariates and both parents' self-reported HLE as predictors. Methods We analyzed data from 242 unrelated children, 193 mothers, and 144 fathers. Children's word reading was assessed in Grades 1 and 3, and parents' word reading was assessed on a single occasion. Predictors of children's reading development included literacy resources and shared reading activities. Results Children's reading in Grade 3 was predicted by mothers' engagement in reading activities and by literacy resources at home, even after controlling for the genetic proxy of parental reading abilities. The longitudinal rate of change from Grades 1 to 3 was not associated with the HLE or parental reading. Conclusions Our finding that parental reading skills predicted children's word reading beyond children's initial word reading underscores the importance of considering genetic confounding in research on the home environment. Beyond parental reading abilities, children's skills were predicted by literacy resources in the home and by how often mothers engage in reading activities with their children. This suggests true environmental effects.

• Nag, Sonali; Vagh, Shaher Banu; Dulay, Katrina May; Snowling, Margaret; Donolato, Enrica & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2024). Home Learning Environments and Children’s Language and Literacy Skills: A Meta-Analytic Review of Studies Conducted in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. Psychological bulletin. ISSN 0033-2909. 150(2), p. 132–153. doi: 10.1037/bul0000417. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  A robust finding from research in high-income countries is that children living in resource-poor homes are vulnerable to difficulties with language and literacy but less is known about this association in low- and middle-income (LMI) countries. We present a meta-analysis of 6,678 correlations from studies in 43 LMI countries. Overall, the results indicate a small but significant association (r = .08) between home language and literacy environment and children’s language and literacy skills. After examining a range of moderators, adult literacy practices and books-at-home had a significantly larger association with children’s language and literacy skills than did home tutoring. Studies using customized measures demonstrated a more marked association between home attributes and children’s outcomes (r = .14) than studies using a common measure across multiple sites (r = .06). Published studies showed significantly larger associations than unpublished studies, and countries with greater income inequality showed a larger association than relatively egalitarian societies. We conclude that the small overall association should not be taken as support for the absence of, or a vanishingly small relationship between the home learning environment and children’s language and literacy skills in LMI countries. Rather, an important factor in detecting this relationship is that assessments must better reflect the nature of homes in different cultures to capture true variation in the population. Such contextually situated measurement would lead to an inclusive conceptualization of home learning environments and can better inform intervention programs to enhance children’s educational success, a critical target for many LMI countries.

• Sørli, Line Walquist; Caglar-Ryeng, Ømur; Furnes, Bjarte Reidar; Nilssen, Trude Nergård; Donolato, Enrica & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2024). Are Speech Sound Difficulties Risk Factors for Difficulties in Language and Reading Skills? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Speech, Language and Hearing Research. ISSN 1092-4388. 68(1), p. 164–177. doi: 10.1044/2024_JSLHR-24-00170. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background: Children with speech sound difficulties often require educational psychology services, yet systematic reviews examining the association between these difficulties and language or reading problems are lacking. This meta-analysis examines whether these children are at higher risk of language and reading difficulties compared to their peers. Method: The study analyzed 290 effect sizes from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies that compared language and reading skills between children with speech sound difficulties and controls. Additionally, we evaluated 37 effect sizes from correlational studies in general populations to examine the relationship between speech sound skills and language or reading skills. Results: Children with speech sound difficulties showed significant concurrent language (Hedges' g = −0.60) and reading (Hedges' g = −0.58) problems. Correlational studies also demonstrated a relationship between speech sound skills and language (r = .23) and reading (r = .23) skills. Phonological awareness and study quality were significant moderators. Longitudinal studies showed persistent or increasing group differences over time in language (Hedges' g = −0.85) and reading (Hedges' g = −0.50). These findings were consistent regardless of the severity or types of speech sound difficulties, nonverbal IQ, country, age, and publication year. However, a precision-effect test and the precision-effect estimate with standard errors analysis suggested a potential decrease in effect size due to publication bias from small sample sizes in primary studies. Conclusion: Children with speech sound difficulties are at an increased risk of language and reading difficulties, emphasizing the need for broader language assessments and early interventions to mitigate future academic difficulties.

• Diamanti, Vassiliki; Grande, German Garcia; Protopapas, Athanassios; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2024). Preschool Morphological Awareness and Developmental Change in Early Reading Ability. Scientific Studies of Reading. ISSN 1088-8438. doi: 10.1080/10888438.2024.2370843. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose This longitudinal study examined the contribution of preschool morphological awareness to word reading skills and reading comprehension, as well as to the developmental change of reading ability beyond other well-established oral language and cognitive predictors. A distinction was made between the domains of inflectional and derivational morphology. Method Two hundred and fifty-nine Norwegian-speaking children (46% female) with a mean age of 5.5 years were assessed in preschool on language measures and again in Grades 1 and 3 on measures of word reading accuracy and fluency and in Grades 3 and 4 on reading comprehension. We fit latent change score models with preschool predictors using parceling to control for measurement error. Results We found a unique contribution of preschool morphological awareness to reading comprehension in Grade 3, but no unique contribution to Grade 1 decoding. Neither awareness of inflections nor awareness of derivations predicted developmental change in word reading fluency between Grades 1 and 3 or change in reading comprehension between Grades 3 and 4 beyond the effect of control variables. Conclusion Our findings confirm the relevance of morphological awareness only for early attainment in reading comprehension and highlight the importance of accounting for measurement error in studying associations among variables aiming to discover specific contributions.

• Amland, Tonje; Grande, German; Scherer, Ronny; Lervåg, Arne & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2024). Cognitive Factors Underlying Mathematical Skills: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Psychological bulletin. ISSN 0033-2909. doi: 10.1037/bul0000457. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In understanding the nature of mathematical skills, the most influential theories suggest that mathematical cognition draws on different systems: numerical, linguistic, spatial, and general cognitive skills. Studies show that skills in these areas are highly predictive of outcomes in mathematics. Nonetheless, the strength of these relations with mathematical achievement varies, and little is known about the moderators or relative importance of each predictor. Based on 269 concurrent and 174 longitudinal studies comprising 2,696 correlations, this meta-analysis summarizes the evidence on cognitive predictors of mathematical skills in children and adolescents. The results showed that nonsymbolic number skills (often labeled approximate number sense) correlate significantly less with mathematical achievement than symbolic number skills and that various aspects of language relate differently to mathematical outcomes. We observed differential predictive patterns for arithmetic and word problems, and these patterns only partly supported the theory of three pathways—quantitative, linguistic, and spatial—for mathematical skills. Concurrently, nonsymbolic number and phonological skills were weak but exclusive predictors of arithmetic skills, whereas nonverbal intelligence quotient (IQ) predicted word problems only. Only symbolic number skills predicted both arithmetic and word problems concurrently. Longitudinally, symbolic number skills, spatial ability, and nonverbal IQ predicted both arithmetic and word problems, whereas language comprehension was important for word problem solving only. As in the concurrent data, nonsymbolic number skill was a weak longitudinal predictor of arithmetic skills. We conclude that the candidates to target in intervention studies are symbolic number skills and language comprehension. It is uncertain whether the two other important predictors, nonverbal IQ and spatial skills, are actually malleable.

• Grande, German; Diamanti, Vassiliki; Protopapas, Athanassios; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2024). The development of morphological awareness and vocabulary: What influences what? Applied Psycholinguistics. ISSN 0142-7164. doi: 10.1017/S0142716424000213. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The awareness of words’ morphological structure has been thought to allow generalizing meaning to other, similarly constructed words. Conversely, a large vocabulary is thought to facilitate the recognition of words’ morphological regularities, thereby contributing to morphological awareness. For this reason, morphological awareness and vocabulary have been suggested to be reciprocally associated across development. We followed 242 (girls = 119) Norwegian preschoolers (Mage = 5.5 years) from preschool through Grade 2 and examined the cross-lagged relations between morphological awareness (inflections and derivations) and vocabulary (receptive and expressive). Our results confirm that the traditional cross-lagged panel model shows significant cross-lagged relations between morphological awareness and vocabulary, as previous studies have shown. However, no cross-lagged relations were found when we accounted for longitudinal measured stability through a cross-lagged panel model with lag-2 paths or unmeasured stability through the random intercept cross-lagged panel model. We found that approximately 50% of the variation in morphology and vocabulary was due to highly stable and invariant factors across grades. We discuss how the significant cross-lagged relations found in previous studies could have been due to their not accounting for the right type of stability when using longitudinal panel data.

• Hoff, David Armas; Amland, Tonje; Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Lervåg, Arne & Protopapas, Athanassios (2023). Early rapid naming longitudinally predicts shared variance in reading and arithmetic fluency. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology. ISSN 0022-0965. 231. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2023.105656. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  A number of cognitive factors have been suggested to underlie development in reading and arithmetic skills. Although the two domains are strongly linked, only a few studies have investigated the processes that are shared between them during the early school years. Rapid automatized naming (RAN) has been identified as a strong predictor of a common fluency factor in reading and arithmetic. In the current study with 232 Norwegian children, we examined how RAN in preschool and Grade 1 relates to the shared and nonshared variance in arithmetic fluency and reading fluency in Grade 3. Furthermore, we examined whether related processing skills (phoneme awareness, working memory, speed of processing, and symbol knowledge) can account for the relationship between RAN and shared fluency—or if they predict variance that is unique to each domain. Our results show that RAN in both preschool and Grade 1 is a strong predictor of shared variance between reading fluency and arithmetic fluency measured several years later, whereas other predictors mainly relate to the nonshared parts of variance in the fluency outcomes. That is, control variables with the theoretical potential to explain some of RAN’s relation to the overlap between reading and arithmetic fluency do not in fact account for this relationship. Our findings provide a starting point for future investigations of the mechanisms of rapid naming.

• Hagen, Åste Mjelve; Rogde, Kristin; Lervåg, Arne; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Norbury, Courtenay (2023). Long-term prognosis of low language proficiency in children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2023(1). doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD015268. Full text in Research Archive
• Donolato, Enrica; Toffalini, Enrico; Rogde, Kristin; Nordahl-Hansen, Anders; Lervåg, Arne & Norbury, Courtenay Frazier [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2023). Oral language interventions can improve language outcomes in children with neurodevelopmental disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Campbell Systematic Reviews. 19(4), p. 1–48. doi: 10.1002/cl2.1368. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background Young people who fail to develop language as expected face significant challenges in all aspects of life. Unfortunately, language disorders are common, either as a distinct condition (e.g., Developmental Language Disorder) or as a part of another neurodevelopmental condition (e.g., autism). Finding ways to attenuate language problems through intervention has the potential to yield great benefits not only for the individual but also for society as a whole. Objectives This meta-analytic review examined the effect of oral language interventions for children with neurodevelopmental disorders. Search Methods The last electronic search was conducted in April 2022. Selection Criteria Intervention studies had to target language skills for children from 2 to 18 years of age with Developmental Language Disorder, autism, intellectual disability, Down syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and Williams syndrome in randomised controlled trials or quasi-experimental designs. Control groups had to include business-as-usual, waiting list, passive or active conditions. However, we excluded studies in which the active control group received a different type, delivery, or dosage of another language intervention. Eligible interventions implemented explicit and structured activities (i.e., explicit instruction of vocabulary, narrative structure or grammatical rules) and/or implicit and broad activities (i.e., shared book reading, general language stimulation). The intervention studies had to assess language skills in receptive and/or expressive modalities. Data Collection and Analysis The search provided 8195 records after deduplication. Records were screened by title and abstract, leading to full-text examinations of 448 records. We performed Correlated and Hierarchical Effects models and ran a retrospective power analysis via simulation. Publication bias was assessed via p-curve and precision-effect estimate. Main Results We examined 38 studies, with 46 group comparisons and 108 effects comparing pre-/post-tests and eight studies, with 12 group comparisons and 21 effects at follow-up. The results showed a mean effect size of d = 0.27 at the post-test and d = 0.18 at follow-up. However, there was evidence of publication bias and overestimation of the mean effects. Effects from the meta-analysis were significantly related to these elements: (1) receptive vocabulary and omnibus receptive measures showed smaller effect sizes relative to expressive vocabulary, grammar, expressive and receptive discourse, and omnibus expressive tests; and (2) the length of the intervention, where longer sessions conducted over a longer period of time were more beneficial than brief sessions and short-term interventions. Neither moderators concerning participants’ characteristics (children's diagnosis, diagnostic status, age, sex, and non-verbal cognitive ability and severity of language impairment), nor those regarding of the treatment components and implementation of the language interventions (intervention content, setting, delivery agent, session structure of the intervention or total number of sessions) reached significance. The same occurred to indicators of study quality. The risk of bias assessment showed that reporting quality for the studies examined in the review was poor. Authors’ Conclusions In sum, the current evidence base is promising but inconclusive. Pre-registration and replication of more robust and adequately powered trials, which include a wider range of diagnostic conditions, together with more long-term follow-up comparisons, are needed to drive evidence-based practice and policy.

• Bratlie, Siri Steffensen; Brinchmann, Ellen Irén; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Torkildsen, Janne von Koss (2022). Morphology—A Gateway to Advanced Language: Meta-Analysis of Morphological Knowledge in Language-Minority Children. Review of Educational Research. ISSN 0034-6543. doi: 10.3102/00346543211073186. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Knowledge about the smallest meaningful units of language, morphemes, is crucial for vocabulary and reading comprehension. This meta-analysis of 43 studies examined differences in morphological knowledge in the societal language between language-minority and language-majority children. There was a moderate to large mean group difference in morphological knowledge in favor of the language-majority children. Studies that examined inflectional knowledge (walk–walked, rose–roses) reported larger differences than studies that examined knowledge of derivations (coexist, serious) and compounds (bluebird, highlight). Studies that used oral tests and tests of expressive language reported larger differences than studies that used written tests and tests of receptive language. These findings show that morphology is an area of weakness in language-minority children. Paired with the evidence that morphological instruction improves general language ability and reading comprehension, the results suggest that morphology could be an essential component in language interventions for language-minority children.

• Lopez-Pedersen, Anita; Mononen, Riikka; Aunio, Pirjo Annika; Scherer, Ronny & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2022). Improving Numeracy Skills in First Graders with low performance in early numeracy: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Remedial and special education. ISSN 0741-9325. doi: 10.1177/07419325221102537. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Children with low performance in early numeracy are at risk of facing learning difficulties in mathematics, but few trials have examined how this can be ameliorated. A total of 120 first-grade children (Mage = 6.4 years) were randomly assigned to an intervention or a control condition. The 14-week intervention targeted early numeracy skills and was delivered in small groups three times a week. Immediately after the initial 8-week intervention phase, moderate and positive effects were found on early numeracy (d = 0.19), word problem solving (d = 0.41), and approximate number sense (d = 0.35). However, only the effects on word problems were significant, and all effects disappeared after the children undertook a second 6-week intervention phase. Overall, results indicate that (a) early numeracy skills are malleable in low-performing children, but (b) frequent and long-term interventions are needed for the positive effects to last.

• Lervåg, Arne & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2022). Modeling the Development of Reading Comprehension. In Snowling, Margaret J.; Hulme, Charles & Nation, Kate (Ed.), The Science of Reading: A Handbook (Wiley Blackwell Handbooks of Developmental Psychology) 2nd Edition. Wiley-Blackwell. ISSN 9781119705093. p. 280–297. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  A skilled reader can derive the meaning from a printed text rapidly and effortlessly. Becoming a skilled reader takes time and practice and is one of the main goals of primary school education. Since the previous edition of this book in 2005, research in this area has flourished and there are now many longitudinal studies examining how reading comprehension develops. This chapter will focus on what we know about the development of reading comprehension in the early school years, with a particular emphasis on understanding causal processes.

• Lervåg, Arne & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2022). Early prediction of learning outcomes in reading. In Skeide, Michael A. (Eds.), he Cambridge Handbook of Dyslexia and Dyscalculia (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology). Cambridge University Press. ISSN 9781108973595. p. 305–317. doi: 10.1017/9781108973595.024. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This chapter focuses on the processes involved in the development of children’s decoding skills: the ability to translate printed words into a speech code, typically assessed by the accuracy and speed of reading aloud. If children struggle in developing this ability, they are often characterized as having dyslexia, but since decoding skills are normally distributed in the population, the cut-off for this diagnosis is somewhat arbitrary (Melby-Lervåg et al. 2012). During the first two years of school, the main aim for children is to develop accurate and fluent early reading abilities that will lay the foundation for the main goal of reading – to be able to extract meaning from text. Thus, though insufficient by itself, efficient word reading is, in turn, a necessary condition for the development of reading comprehension. Research on the foundations of learning to read has burgeoned in the last twenty-five years, with important theoretical and practical consequences.

• Gunnerud, Hilde Lowell; Foldnes, Njål & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2022). Levels of skills and predictive patterns of reading comprehension in bilingual children with an early age of acquisition. Reading and writing. ISSN 0922-4777. doi: 10.1007/s11145-022-10286-2. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Bilingualism appears to be related to poor language and reading comprehension in the instructional language (L2). However, in the long term, an early age of second language acquisition (AoA) may produce higher levels of second language skills than a later onset of L2 exposure. Most studies on school-aged second language learners (L2 learners) include children with 3–7 years of second language (L2) exposure. We compared 91 early bilingual (Norwegian and a variety of different native languages) 5th graders with 196 monolingual peers on a range of linguistic skills and their relationships with reading comprehension. All bilingual learners in the sample had been exposed to the instructional language by at least the age of 2. The results, using structural equation modelling and latent variables, show that early bilingual learners’ vocabulary, listening comprehension, and reading comprehension are significantly lower than those of monolingual learners. Nevertheless, they have similar levels of knowledge of conjunctions and decoding skills and corresponding predictive patterns from linguistic skills to reading comprehension. We discuss the implications of the findings.

• Thurmann-Moe, Anne C; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2021). Single case design i evaluering av spesialpedagogiske tiltak. En gjennomgang av aktuelle analysemetoder for vurdering av effekt. Spesialpedagogikk. ISSN 0332-8457. 86(1), p. 53–72. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Artikkelen drøfter hvordan single case design (SCD) kan brukes i vurdering av spesialpedagogiske tiltak, og diskuterer spørsmål knyttet til validitet og alternative innfallsvinkler for vurdering av effekt. Det presenteres også et konkret eksempel fra en gjennomført studie. Det argumenteres for at SCD er spesielt egnet til vurdering av effekt av spesialpedagogiske tiltak for elever med lavfrekvente og/eller sammensatte vansker. I skolen kan SCD bidra til å øke kvaliteten på spesialundervisningen gjennom mer nøyaktige vurderinger av hva som virker for den enkelte elev, og også bidra til utvikling av forskningsbasert kunnskap for praksis.

• Karlsen, Jannicke; Hjetland, Hanne Næss; Hagtvet, Bente Eriksen; Braeken, Johan & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2021). The concurrent and longitudinal relationship between narrative skills and other language skills in children. First language. ISSN 0142-7237. doi: 10.1177/0142723721995688. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  We examined the concurrent relationship between narrative skills (the Renfrew Bus Story Test) and core language measures (vocabulary, grammar and verbal memory) at age 4 and the longitudinal relationship between core language and listening comprehension skills at age 7 in a sample of 215 children using latent variables and structural equation modelling. Our main purpose was to investigate to what extent narrative retell constitutes a unique influence on later language and listening comprehension skills. The results support a two-factor model of narrative retelling and core language representing different but related constructs at age 4. Narrative retell explained unique variance in later language skills but did not explain additional variance beyond the 58% explained by the age 4 language construct. Similarly, narrative retell predicted unique variance in later listening comprehension, but not beyond what was explained by core language skills at age 4. The strength of the relationship between narrative retelling at age 4 and the age 7 measures was not related to the level of narrative skills. The results indicate that age 4 traditional core language measures capture more of the skills that are important for later language and listening comprehension than narrative skills at the same age.

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• Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Ogden, Terje (2026). Innføring i spesialpedagogikk. Gyldendal Norsk Forlag A/S. ISBN 9788205622661. 246 p. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Denne boka tar opp sentrale spørsmål i spesialpedagogisk praksis og viser hvordan opplæring kan tilpasses innenfor rammen av den norske fellesskolen. Boka gir deg innsikt i de vanligste utfordringene i læring og atferd, og gir deg verktøyene til å forstå dem, kartlegge behov og skape inkluderende læringsmiljøer med målrettet og individuelt tilrettelagt opplæring. Boka gir en bred introduksjon til spesialpedagogikk for studenter, lærere og andre som arbeider med opplæring, undervisning og tilrettelegging av læringsmiljøet for barn og unge med ulike behov.

• Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). Når språk, lesing eller matematikk er vanskelig En grunnbok. Fagbokforlaget. ISBN 9788245046564. 470 p. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Hvert år står omtrent 50 000 barn klare til skole-start fulle av forventninger. Dessverre vet vi også at mange av dem etter en tid møter skuffelse, frustrasjon og nederlag fordi de strever med å lære seg ferdigheter som andre ser ut til å tilegne seg nærmest uanstrengt. For dem av oss som mestret skolen uten nevneverdige utfordringer, er det nok vanskelig å forstå fullt ut hvor krevende det er å ha lærevansker, ikke minst for barnet selv, men også for lærere, foreldre og andre tett på som gjerne vil hjelpe. Dette er en grunnbok om lærevansker. Den gir en fullstendig oversikt over hva lærevansker er, over årsaker til lærevansker og hva slags støttesystemer som finnes for elever med lærevansker. Dessuten går boken inn på alt vi vet om språk-, lese- og matematikkvansker, og den diskuterer definisjoner, forklaringer, kartlegging og tiltak. Boken er skrevet for studenter i lærerutdanning og spesialpedagogikk, men kan med fordel leses av alle som jobber med elever i skolen eller støtte-systemet rundt elevene (for eksempel ansatte i PP-tjenesten, Statped, barne- og ungdoms-psykiatrien).

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• Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Sandsør, Astrid Marie Jorde; Rege, Mari & Markussen, Simen (2026). Lærdommen fra Pisa? Norge trenger bedre nasjonale målinger, ikke færre. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Hagen, Åste Mjelve; Lervåg, Arne & Rogde, Kristin (2026). Tidlig innsats er ikke nok: Effekten av språkstimulering i barnehage er av begrenset varighet. [Journal]. FORSKNING.NO. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Wandem, Fredrik Solli (2026). Hva om arbeidsminnet ikke finnes? [Journal]. FORSKNING.NO. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Når bør vi gripe inn hvis barn sliter med å lære? [Journal]. FORSKNING.NO. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Hanne Finstad / Forskerfabrikken Podkast. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Reading Disorders and genetics: Effects and transfer effects from language and reading interventions. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Hulme, Charles; snowling, maggie; west, gillian; Crane, claudine & Campos, Diego Gonzalez (2026). The efficacy of early language intervention on reading: an individual participant data (IPD) analysis. Full text in Research Archive
• Rønneberg, Vibeke; Amland, Tonje; Solheim, Oddny Judith; Lervåg, Arne; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Ertesvåg, Sigrun K. [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2026). Improving Reading And Mathematical Skills Through an Integrated Intervention: A Multi-site Randomized Trial. doi: https:/www.the-mcls.org/conferences/mcls-2026-padua. Full text in Research Archive
• Lervåg, Arne; Wang, Lei & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Developmental Dynamics between Reading Comprehension, Word Reading and Vocabulary in Norwegian Second to Third Graders. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose — It is well established that language skills, such as vocabulary, are important precursors for word reading and reading comprehension. However, theories about reading development are not very specific about how different components impact reading during various developmental phases. This study examines the developmental relationship between reading comprehension, vocabulary, and word reading skills in an early phase of reading. Models, which separate variation within and between the children, and those that do not, are used. Method — 288 children, recruited 4 months after the start of formal reading instruction, were measured four times over 1.5 years. Different cross-lagged panel models were estimated to test the direction of influence between the development of reading comprehension, vocabulary skills, and word reading skills. Results — Models, separating within-person from between-person variation, clearly showed that changes in word-reading skills were associated with later reading comprehension skills. This was less clear in the models that mix up the within-person and between-person variation. Some, but fewer, dynamic relations were found for vocabulary and reading comprehension, and the ones found were in models that mix up the within-person and between-person variance. Conclusions — The findings provide important information about the developmental dynamics of reading in a relatively early phase of development. Further, the results inform us about the importance of choosing the appropriate model if we are interested in how a child’s reading skills develop over time.

• Donolato, Enrica; Wahl, Hedda Novang; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2026). Math anxiety and math skills development in children: a longitudinal study on early predictors. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction. Math anxiety and math skills are closely intertwined, yet their early predictors in childhood remain poorly understood. Previous research has identified cognitive and affective predictors of math performance, including intelligence and working memory (Amland et al., 2025), knowledge of mathematical symbols (Szczygieł et al., 2024), and general and math anxiety (Barroso et al., 2021; Caviola et al., 2022). Similarly, there is evidence that math anxiety is shaped by general anxiety (Szczygieł et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2014), working memory (Pellizzoni et al., 2022), and knowledge of mathematical symbols (Szczygieł et al., 2024). Despite extensive correlational evidence, few longitudinal studies have systematically examined cognitive and affective predictors of math anxiety and math skills in school-age children. Research Aims. The goal of this study is to examine children’s math anxiety and math skills development and identify their cognitive and affective predictors in a sample of children followed up from kindergarten to primary school. Materials and Methods. The sample consisted of 259 children (52% boys; M age = 5.5 years at project onset). At the first time point, during their final year of preschool, children completed assessments of cognitive abilities, numeracy skills, and general anxiety. From Grade 3 to Grade 6, children were assessed annually on math anxiety (Achievement Emotions Questionnaire–Math Anxiety; AEQ-MA), arithmetic fluency (Test of Basic Arithmetic and Numeracy Skills; TOBANS) and a mathematical reasoning (Word Problems subtest of the WISC-IV). Assessments were administrated individually in sessions of approximately 60 minutes during kindergarten or school hours. Results. Growth models are being used to examine math anxiety and math skills and to test early predictors of individual differences in growth. Final results from ongoing analyses will clarify the extent to which early cognitive, numeracy and affective factors contribute to changes in math anxiety and math skills in primary school. Discussion. These findings are expected to contribute to a better understanding of early factors that may place children at risk for unfavourable trajectories in developing math anxiety or poor math skills. The study has implications for early identification, highlighting how targeting foundational skills may support both math skills and mitigate math anxiety. Findings will further inform how these insights can be translated into educational practices to enhance young students’ successful math learning.

• Lervåg, Arne; Wahl, Hedda Novang; Donolato, Enrica & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). The developmental dynamics between math anxiety and math skills: examining three theories. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Introduction. Math anxiety is consistently associated with poorer learning and achievement, yet the direction of this relationship remains debated (e.g., Namkung et al., 2019). Three primary theoretical models explain the link between anxiety and achievement. The reduced competency model suggests that weak math skills generate anxiety. The learning avoidance model proposes that anxiety leads students to disengage from practice and participation, thereby harming performance. The reciprocal model integrates both processes, proposing a cyclical relationship in which poor skills increase anxiety, which in turn further impairs achievement (Carey et al., 2016). Some studies using traditional cross-lagged panel models support reciprocal effects (Gunderson et al., 2018). However, newer Random Intercept-Cross-Lagged Panel Models (RI-CLPMs) control for stable individual differences, allowing clearer examination of within-person changes over time (Hammaker et al., 2015). One five-year study applying RI-CLPMs found that anxiety negatively predicted later math grades within individuals, whereas grades did not predict anxiety. Thus, whereas traditional CLPM findings favor the reciprocal model, RI-CLPM results align more closely with the learning avoidance model. However, this study relied on grades rather than standardized tests, and anxiety was not assessed specifically in testing contexts. Research Aims. The present study uses RI-CLPMs to examine whether developmental relations between math anxiety and achievement vary across anxiety types, providing a more nuanced understanding of how emotions influence children’s mathematical learning. Norwegian students were followed from Grade 3 to Grade 6, with two different measures of anxiety, class anxiety and test anxiety. Methods. Two hundred and fifty children's math anxiety and math word problem skills were tested annually over three years. Results. The results show that earlier higher levels of test anxiety were significantly related to poorer later math skills. For class anxiety, there was a significant relation in the opposite direction. Poor math skills were related to later math class anxiety. In this model, there was also some evidence of a relationship in the opposite direction, but sensitivity tests suggest this might be due to confounders. Further analyses also revealed that the effect of poor math skills on class anxiety was moderated by gender, with higher effect sizes for girls than for boys. Discussion. Support was found for all the above-mentioned three theories of this relationship, but the results suggest types of anxiety and gender might moderate the direction and strength of the relations between anxiety and math skills.

• Wang, Lei; Wang, Mari Vaage & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). The Longitudinal Effect of Early Special Education on Language Skills Depends on Kindergarten Size. doi: https:/eecera.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/08/EECERA-2026-symposia-sessions-version-27-August-2026.pdf. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study examines whether the quality of early child education care (ECEC) influences the longitudinal effect of special education (SE) on language ability. Children with language difficulties make up almost half of the children in SE in ECEC (Wang et al., 2026). Previous studies found the negative effect of SE on children’s language and academic outcomes (e.g., Sullivan & Field, 2013). Although the effectiveness of early SE service may depend on the quality of ECEC, no study has examined it. We used the bioecological framework (Bronfenbrenner & Ceci, 1994) , which posits that both distal and proximal factors influence children’s developmental outcomes. Using the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study (MoBa), we followed children aged 5 to 8 (N = 6,468; 295 of them in SE) and examined the effect of SE in ECEC when the children were 5-year-olds on language skills 3 years later. We constructed a propensity-score-weighted sample based on 36 covariates. In addition to SE provision, four ECEC quality variables were included as predictors: curriculum quality, group size, staff quality, and assessment routines. All participants gave informed consent before the study started and were free to withdraw at any time; Participants' names were removed. The main effect of SE on language skills is negative, while the main effects of the four quality factors are positive. The negative effect of SE is reduced when ECECs are larger in scale. The results indicated that SE in ECEC is not effective in improving language skills. More resources should be allocated to ECECs with lower structural quality.

• Wang, Lei; Yang, Junyi; Scherer, Ronny; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Anmarkrud, Øistein (2026). The Relationship Between Screen Use and Language and Literacy Skills in Childhood: The Roles of Family SES and Children's Prior Ability. doi: https:/www.triplesr.org/sites/default/files/2026-07/detailed_programme%20July%2015%202026.pdf. Full text in Research Archive
• Wang, Lei; Wang, Mari Vaage & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). The Effects of Early Special Education Depends on Children’s Difficulties Types. doi: https:/www.psychologicalscience.org/redesign/wp-content/uploads/2026/07/Final-2026-Annual-Poster-Session-Brochure.pdf. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study examines the effects of special needs assistance (SNA) in early childhood education and care (ECEC) on children’s language and academic performance in primary school. Using the Norwegian Mother, Father, and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) and birth registry data, we examined the effects of SNA and children’s difficulty types in ECEC when the children were 5-year-old (n = 35,024; 1809 received SNA) on language, reading, and math outcomes in primary school when they were 8-year-old, using propensity score matching with 36 early covariates. The results showed that the effects of SNA were negative on all outcomes when it was the only predictor. When we added the difficulty types and their interactions with SNA into the regressions, the results showed that: 1. SNA did not predict language and academic outcomes for children with no difficulty; 2. SNA positively predicted language and reading abilities for children with language or developmental difficulty; 3. SNA negatively predicted all the outcomes for children with both language and developmental difficulties.

• Wandem, Fredrik Solli & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Kort forklart: Hva er egentlig arbeidsminne? Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Har du noen gang gått inn i et rom og glemt hvorfor du gikk dit? Eller fått flere beskjeder på en gang og bare husket noen av dem? Dette handler ikke alltid bare om konsentrasjon, men om noe vi kaller arbeidsminne.

• Keles, Serap; Hagen, Åste Mjelve; Guo, Ling; Hwang, Jin Kyoung & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Effectiveness of Tiered Educational Interventions in Early Childhood: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Tier 2 and Tier 3 Supports. Full text in Research Archive
• Hoel, Mari Sommer; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Gunnerud, Hilde Lowell (2026). Pragmatic language in children with Pragmatic Language Impairment (PLI): A systematic review and Meta-Analysis. Full text in Research Archive
• Berg, Karianne; Porsanger, Camilla Adleide; Rydland, Veslemøy; Olsen, Kathrin & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Language exposure to the Sámi language in preschool and at home in indigenous children: Does it predict language and emergent literacy? Full text in Research Archive
• Gunnerud, Hilde Lowell; Rønneberg, Vibeke & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). The distinctiveness and prevalence of different reading comprehension profiles in Norwegian first graders. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The prevalence of reading disorders and reading profiles varies depending on the cut-off scores and definitions used to identify reading difficulties (Keenan et al., 2014; Di Folco et al., 2020). Consequently, there is a need to move beyond variable-centered approaches when examining poor readers and their associated profiles. We apply latent profile analysis (LPA) to identify distinct profiles of reading difficulties among first-grade students (N = 722; second-language learners = 157) and examine the extent to which profiles correspond to groups identified using conventional cut-off scores. Profile indicators included nonverbal IQ, executive function, word reading, rapid automatized naming (RAN), working memory, phonological short-term memory, phonological awareness, vocabulary, grammar, and sentence repetition. Preliminary analyses indicated that a three-profile solution provided the best fit: (1) a low-performing profile with consistently low scores across measures (20.8%); (2) an average-performing profile (49.1%); and (3) a high-performing profile (30.1%). Membership in the low-performing profile was associated with second-language learner status, poor decoding skills (word decoding below the 10th percentile), and language abilities comparable to those of children with developmental language disorder (DLD), defined as monolingual students scoring below the 10th percentile on a latent language factor. Monolingual status was more strongly associated with the high-performing than the average-performing profile. These findings suggest that first-grade students with weak decoding skills often experience broader language and cognitive difficulties. Consequently, the identification of decoding difficulties should be viewed as a starting point for further assessment rather than the endpoint of assessment, helping to inform intervention and educational support.

• Wandem, Fredrik Solli & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Kort forklart: Hvorfor er tidlig innsats så viktig? doi: https:/www.uv.uio.no/spedaims/aktuelt/podkast/det-virker/kort-forklart-tidlig-innsats.html. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  I barnehagen eller skolen kan det være små tegn. Et barn som strever med språk. En elev som ikke helt får tak på bokstavene. Eller en som faller litt utenfor faglig. Nesten uten at vi legger merke til det. Hva vi gjør da? Venter vi og ser det an? Eller griper vi inn tidlig?

• Porsanger, Camilla Adleide; Berg, Karianne; Rydland, Veslemøy; Olsen, Kathrin & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2026). Language and Literacy Interventions for Indigenous Children: A Systematic review and Meta-Analysis of the effects. Full text in Research Archive
• Lyster, Solveig Alma Halaas; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Hofslundsengen, Hilde Christine (2025). Lese- og skrivevansker. In Befring, Edvard (Eds.), Spesialpedagogikk. Cappelen Damm Akademisk. ISSN 9788202839888. p. 379–410. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Spesialpedagogikk, som er det mest omfattende og allsidige verket om spesialpedagogikk i Norge, kommer nå i sin 7. utgave. Bokas fire deler omhandler disse temaene:Spesialpedagogikkens identitet som et mangfoldig lærings- og verdifag: faglige perspektiver og forståelsesmåter, etikk, opplæringsrettigheter, historiske grunntrekk og spesialpedagogisk kompetanseutvikling. Spesialpedagogiske grunnleggende arbeidsoppgaver: inkludering, kartlegging, forebygging, den spesialpedagogiske tiltakskjeden og samarbeid med foreldre, PPT og andre. Spesialpedagogiske støtte- og hjelpetiltak for en mangfoldig målgruppe: kommunikasjons- og språkforstyrrelser, lese- og skrivevansker, matematikkvansker, utviklingshemming, hørsels- og synsvansker, fysisk-motoriske funksjonshemminger, psykososial sårbarhet, migrasjonsrelaterte vansker, autisme og barn og unge med stort læringspotensial. Spesialpedagogikk i barnehage og skole: barnehage, grunnskole, videregående opplæring og skolelivsmestring. Boka retter seg primært til bachelor- og masterstudenter i spesialpedagogikk og studenter i lærerutdanningene, men er også velegnet i pedagogikk-, sosial- og helsefagene. Forfatterne er rekruttert fra de fremste studie- og forskningsmiljøene i Norge.

• Lopez-Pedersen, Anita; Amland, Tonje; Solheim, Oddny Judith; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Rønneberg, Vibeke (2025). Improving Reading And Mathematical Skills Through a Combined Intervention: A Multi-site Randomized Trial. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Meta-analyses have found that children with math difficulties are twice as likely to also have dyslexia. Knowing that it is common to struggle with both reading and math, we ask: how can we support both reading and mathematics at the same time? Does a 20-week integrated reading and math intervention have an immediate effect on: Arithmetic fluency & Word reading, Reading comprehension, Word problem solving and Mathematical language compared to a business-as-usual control group? Results: This cross-domain RCT produced effects on all numeracy measures; fluency-related (arithmetic), and those related more to math language comprehension (mathematical language and word problem solving). We found no effects on literacy measures on Intent to Treat. Delayed post-test yet to be analyzed and teacher reports of participation experience yet to be analyzed: might shed light on intervention effects.

• Amland, Tonje; Grande, German; Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Bergen, Elsje van & Lervåg, Arne (2025). The Intergenerational Impact of Mothers and Fathers on Children’s Arithmetic Development. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Several studies have investigated the associations between the home numeracy environment (HNE) and children’s mathematical skills. Collectively, findings point in different directions. An aspect rarely considered in HNE studies, are parent’s mathematical abilities. Parental abilities carry the potential to serve as a proxy for genetic transmission and therefore shed light on the intergenerational impact of parents on children’s achievement. In this study, we asked whether reported numeracy activities in the home and parent’s arithmetic ability both predict children’s arithmetic skill development.

• Donolato, Enrica; caviola, sara; Masi, Alice; Lervåg, Arne & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). Improving Math Attitudes in School-Age Students: A Meta-Analysis on Intervention Studies. Full text in Research Archive
• Wang, Lei; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Wang, Mari Vaage (2025). Children and kindergarten’s factors influence the allocation of special education in kindergarten. doi: https:/www.earli.org/assets/images/earli_program_2025-2.pdf. Full text in Research Archive
• Wang, Lei; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Wang, Mari Vaage (2025). Special needs assistance to children with language, behavioral, and developmental difficulties in kindergarten: Predictors of how resources are allocated. doi: https:/www.triplesr.org/sites/default/files/2025-09/SSSR%202025%20Programme.pdf. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Rønneberg, Vibeke; Lopez-Pedersen, Anita; Amland, Tonje; Solheim, Oddny Judith & Lervåg, Arne (2025). Improving reading and mathematical skills through an integrated intervention: a multi-site randomized trial. Full text in Research Archive
• Dacian, dolean,; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2025). The impact of homework and guided parental support on socioeconomically disadvantaged children. Full text in Research Archive
• Hoel, Mari Sommer; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Gunnerud, Hilde Lowell (2025). Pragmatic language in children with Pragmatic Language Impairment (PLI): A systematic review and Meta-Analysis. Full text in Research Archive
• Høgetveit, Anne Mari; Donolato, Enrica; Canrinus, Esther Tamara & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). A Meta-Analysis of the Mathematical Skills in Children with Developmental Language Disorder. doi: https:/www.earli.org/events/earli2025. Full text in Research Archive
• Yang, Junyi; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Anmarkrud, Øistein (2025). Dialing in: how mothers' phone use relates to child language development. Full text in Research Archive
• Hagen, Åste Mjelve; Rogde, Kristin; Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Lervåg, Arne & Norbury, Courtenay Frazier (2025). Long-term prognosis of low language proficiency in children: A Cochrane prognostic review. Full text in Research Archive
• Maurer, Michelle Nina; Campos, Diego Gonzalez; Gowenlock, Anna E.; Norbury, Courtenay Frazier & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). The relationship between socioeconomic factors and oral language in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Full text in Research Archive
• Walquist-Sørli, Line; Nergård-Nilssen, Trude & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). Early speech sound difficulties and its relationship with language and reading. A meta-analysis and a longitudinal study. Full text in Research Archive
• Hoel, Mari Sommer; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Gunnerud, Hilde Lowell (2025). What characterises school-aged children with pragmatic language difficulties? A systematic review and Meta-Analysis. Full text in Research Archive
• Nergård-Nilssen, Trude; Walquist-Sørli, Line; Friborg, Oddgeir; Furnes, Bjarte Reidar; Riise, Sølvi Grønning & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). Evaluating the UiT-ReadWell programme's impact on reading disorders in young Norwegian students. Full text in Research Archive
• Walquist-Sørli, Line; Nergård-Nilssen, Trude; Maurer, Michelle Nina; Friborg, Oddgeir & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). The Influence of Speech Sound Skills on Language and Literacy Development: A Longitudinal Study from Ages 4 to 9. Full text in Research Archive
• Nergård-Nilssen, Trude; Maurer, Michelle Nina; Friborg, Oddgeir & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). The Influence of Speech Sound Skills on Language and Literacy Development: A Longitudinal Study from Ages 4 to 9. Full text in Research Archive
• Amland, Tonje; Bergen, Elsje van; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2024). The gene-environment interplay of reading: The intergenerational impact of mothers and fathers on child word reading development. doi: https:/www.triplesr.org/thirty-first-annual-meeting. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Purpose: Parents provide children with a home literacy environment (HLE) and a genetic disposition for reading, leading to potential gene-environment correlations that may confound the relationship between HLE and children’s reading. This study examines whether the reading ability of both parents serves as a proxy of the genetic confounding influencing the association between the HLE and children’s word reading development. Method: Data from 242 unrelated children, 193 mothers, and 144 fathers were analyzed. The Test of Word Reading Efficiency (TOWRE) assessed word reading in Grades 1 and 3 in children and mothers and fathers in the interim. Additionally, literacy resources at home were measured using each parent’s knowledge of children’s literature and number of books at home. Reading activities were indexed by self-reports of the frequency of parents’ own reading activities with the child. Using a latent change score model of children’s word reading, we predicted word reading initial status in Grade 1 and longitudinal change from Grades 1–3. Results: Mothers’ frequency of teaching reading and parents’ literacy resources at home predicted significant differences among children’s word reading in Grade 1, controlling for parental reading abilities. However, mothers’ and fathers’ reading abilities emerged as the sole significant predictors of the initial status in Grade 1 and the rate at which children develop word reading abilities from Grades 1–3. Conclusions: This study emphasizes that parental ability is an overlooked component of the HLE, as parental reading partially confounds the association between the reading environment and children’s word reading development.

• Keles, Serap; Braak, Dieuwer Ten; Hagen, Åste Marie Mjelve & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2024). A Meta Analysis of Validity and Effectiveness of Screening Assessment Tools within Three Tier Model. Full text in Research Archive
• Nergård-Nilssen, Trude; Furnes, Bjarte Reidar; Friborg, Oddgeir; Caglar-Ryeng, Ømur & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2024). Improving Reading Comprehension through Language Comprehension and Early Word Reading: A Multi-Site Randomized Trial. Full text in Research Archive
• Nilssen, Trude Nergård; Furnes, Bjarte Reidar; Friborg, Oddgeir; Caglar-Ryeng, Ømur & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2024). Improving reading comprehension through language comprehension and early word reading: A multi-site randomized trial. Full text in Research Archive
• Wandem, Fredrik Solli; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Solberg, Erna (2024). Podkast: Erna Solberg snakker om dysleksi. [Internet]. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Vi inviterer til en åpen og uformell samtale om dysleksi med Høyre-leder Erna Solberg og professor i spesialpedagogikk ved Universitetet i Oslo, Monica Melby-Lervåg

• Wandem, Fredrik Solli; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Berdal, Stig (2024). Podkast: Hva er egentlig dysleksi? [Internet]. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Stig Berdal, logoped og seniorrådgiver i Statped, og Monica Melby-Lervåg, professor i spesialpedagogikk ved Universitet i Oslo og leder i SpedAims, svarer på alt vi lurer på om dysleksi.

• Sørli, Line Walquist; Nilssen, Trude Nergård; Furnes, Bjarte Reidar; Caglar-Ryeng, Ømur; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Donolato, Enrica (2024). Are speech sound difficulties risk factors for difficulties in language and reading skills? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Full text in Research Archive
• Maurer, Michelle Nina; Wang, Lei & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2024). The relation between early language skills and later listening comprehension: Examining three theories. Full text in Research Archive
• Wang, Lei; Wang, Mari Vaage & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2024). Exploring the relationships between parental and child factors in Norwegian children with special education in language and reading: A population-based network analysis. Full text in Research Archive
• Amland, Tonje; Bergen, Elsje van; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne Ola (2024). The intergenerational impact of mothers and fathers on children's word reading development. Full text in Research Archive
• Amland, Tonje; Bergen, Elsje van; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne Ola (2024). The intergenerational impact of mothers and fathers on children's word reading development. Full text in Research Archive
• Hagen, Åste Mjelve; Rogde, Kristin; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2024). Do the Effects of a Preschool Language Intervention Last in the Long Run?  A 4-Year Follow-Up Study. Full text in Research Archive
• Keles, Serap; Braak, Dieuwer Ten; Hagen, Åste Marie Mjelve & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2023). A meta-analysis of teacher screening and progress monitoring assessments: Preliminary findings. Full text in Research Archive
• Donolato, Enrica; Masi, Alice; Caviola, Sara; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Lervåg, Arne (2023). Math-attitudes intervention programs for school-age students: A meta-analysis and overview of the literature. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Amland, Tonje; Grande, German; Scherer, Ronny & Lervåg, Arne (2023). Does language underlie mathematical skill development? A systematic review and meta-analysis of concurrent and longitudinal predictors. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2023). Lærerliv episode 13: Spesialundervisning og alle timene som forsvant. [Internet]. Podkasten Lærerliv. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2023). Over 1 million skoletimer til de svakeste elevene ble sporløst borte. [Internet]. NRK. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Anmarkrud, Øistein (2023). Ny opplæringslov kan svekke rettighetene til barn med lærevansker. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2023). NRK EKKO: Hva fungerer om du strever med lesing? [Radio]. NRK P2. Full text in Research Archive
• Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2023). NRK Nyhetsmorgen: Dysleksi i skolen. [TV]. NRK TV. Full text in Research Archive
• Sørli, Line Walquist; Nilssen, Trude Nergård; Caglar-Ryeng, Ømur; Furnes, Bjarte Reidar; Melby-Lervåg, Monica & Donolato, Enrica (2023). Are speech sound difficulties a marker of difficulties in language skills? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Full text in Research Archive
• Wandem, Fredrik Solli; Melby-Lervåg, Monica; Sætherskar, Ida Kristensen; Furnes, Bjarte Reidar; Næss, Kari-Anne Bottegård & Rønneberg, Vibeke [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2023). Podkast: Spesialpedagogisk spørretime #1. [Internet]. Universitetet i Oslo. Full text in Research Archive
• Keles, Serap; Braak, Dieuwer Ten; Hagen, Åste Marie Mjelve & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2022). Validity and effectiveness of screening assessments within the three-tier model: Protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis. Full text in Research Archive
• Walquist-Sørli, Line; Nergård-Nilssen, Trude & Melby-Lervåg, Monica (2025). Childhood Speech Sound Development and Difficulties: Relationship with Language and Reading. UiT Norges arktiske universitet. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This doctoral dissertation investigates the relationship between childhood speech sound skills and the development of language comprehension and reading skills. The study aims to investigate whether early speech sound difficulties serve as a risk factor for broader language problems, including language comprehension and literacy, both concurrently and longitudinally. Furthermore, the dissertation examines the predictive role of preschool speech sound skills in the development of later expressive language skills, listening comprehension, and reading comprehension during the school-age years. Additionally, a central focus is the examination of potential moderating factors influencing the relationships between these skills. Utilizing meta-analytic methods and structural equation modelling (SEM), this dissertation examines speech sound skills as predictors of growth trajectories over time, providing insights into the developmental patterns of language comprehension and reading. Key findings: a significant relationship exists between early speech sound difficulties and language comprehension as well as reading skills, both concurrently and longitudinally, with phonological awareness serving as a key moderator. Speech sound skills in preschoolers have predictive value, both independently and in conjunction with language comprehension, for later language and literacy development during early school years. The results suggest that phonological awareness underlies the relationship between speech sound skills and early reading skills. However, the association between speech sound skills and language comprehension remains significant even after accounting for phonological awareness, suggesting a plausible causal relationship where speech sound skills influence language development. The nature of speech sound errors (delayed vs. disordered) and persistent speech sound difficulties in school-age children serve as important indicators of concurrent language comprehension problems. The research underscores the crucial role of speech sound skills in shaping academic trajectories, providing valuable insights for both educational and clinical practices.

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