What this study is about
In this study, we examined the second-level digital divide, that is, the gap in digital competence between students from different socioeconomic backgrounds. It used representative data from the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) 2023, covering more than 126,000 students, about 60,000 teachers, and almost 3,500 school principals. We first estimated multilevel models within each country and then synthesized the results meta-analytically to quantify both the average effects and how much they vary across countries.
Students’ socioeconomic status (SES) was positively related to their performance-based digital competence (computer and information literacy) in all participating countries. On average, one unit higher on the socioeconomic index went along with about 18 points higher digital competence. The size of this gap, however, varied considerably between countries.
Several classroom practices were associated with higher digital competence, including the use of general ICT applications, inquiry-based teaching, and teachers’ use of utility software. Other practices, such as specialist applications, experimental scenario-based teaching, and teachers’ use of digital learning tools, were negatively associated with digital competence, possibly because they are used more often with lower-achieving students. Indicators reported by school principals were not systematically related to students’ digital competence.
Crucially, classroom practices and teacher- and school-level factors generally did not weaken the link between SES and digital competence. The only exception was a small moderating effect of principals’ use of ICT for general school-related activities. Schools raise competence levels, but the benefits appear to accrue similarly across socioeconomic groups. Digital instructional practices therefore work mainly as performance-enhancing rather than equity-enhancing mechanisms. Since the data are cross-sectional, these findings describe associations rather than causal effects. If digital competence is to serve as a lever for educational equity, targeted and structural interventions beyond general digitalization strategies may be needed, such as structured digital training programs and differentiated support for students with limited digital resources at home.
More information about this study
Please check the full article here: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40536-026-00330-w