STartAlder og extramural enGElsk: Å lære engelsk i og utenfor skolen i Norge og Flandern (STAGE)

• Rindal, Ulrikke (2026). You do you: English-language media influence in the everyday linguistic repertoires of young Norwegians. International Journal of the Sociology of Language. ISSN 0165-2516. doi: 10.1515/ijsl-2025-0168. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Young people in Norway experience a considerable presence of English through media , creating new affordances for language use. This study explores such affordances by investigating language practices and reflections about language among five pre-teens (aged 11–12) and six teens (aged 15–16) in Norway. Through analyses of participants’ metalinguistic commentary as well as their language use during interviews, the article describes the ways in which a changing media landscape influences the everyday linguistic repertoires of young Norwegians. The findings show that English- language features are integrated as part of a contextually relevant identity for some of the participants, while ideological links to perceptions of language proficiency persist. The data suggest a widely shared indexicality of English features, in particular accent features, and the study shows how this indexicality can be drawn on in creative performances, including styling and mocking practices. Furthermore, the findings suggest that the sheer amount of American English media content accessed by young Norwegians has rendered standardised American English an unmarked standard. The role of English in identity work and complex communicative repertoires suggests that the status of English surpasses that of a ‘foreign’ language, having become an everyday language for young Norwegians.

• Sandlund, Erica & Sundqvist, Pia (2026). Agreeing, Accounting, and Affiliating: L2 Interactional Competence in High-Scoring L2 English Learners’ Agreement Sequences. Nordic Journal of English Studies (NJES). ISSN 1502-7694. 25(1), s. 9–47. doi: 10.35360/njes.v25i1.63737. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Research on what should count as evidence of foreign/second language interactional competence (L2 IC) has grown exponentially, particularly drawing on work in Conversation Analysis (CA) (Hall, Hellerman, and Pekarek Doehler 2011). Recurrent participation in L2 conversation is viewed as key to IC development, and learners gradually master an increasing range of L2-appropriate social actions (Salaberry and Kunitz 2019). We address L2 IC in two educational contexts—Norway and Flanders—where learners’ exposure to English is high but where the starting age of formal instruction differs. We focus on one facet of L2 IC: the interactional management of agreement sequences. Previous research has focused on speakers’ practices for doing disagreement (e.g., Čekaitė 2007), showing that learners deploy more advanced methods for disagreement as their proficiency and L2 participation increases. In this study, which is based on generated speaking test data using pre-set test topics that learners are to discuss, relatively few disagreements were found. However, for high-scoring learners, extended and collaborative agreement sequences revealed various practices for jointly agreeing on a stance on the pre-set topics. From a collection of 24 speaking tests collected in grade 10, a subsample of the four highest-scoring learners in each context (N = 8) and their co-participants was analyzed further with a CA approach. Findings show the learners’ awareness of a preference for agreeing with first assessments (cf. Pomerantz 1984; Sacks 1987), and of the conditional relevance of accounts following expressions of agreement with a test prompt. Participants also show affiliation with each other’s contributions, and for the most part align with prior action in their responses (cf. Steensig 2019). Participants also display competence in drawing on vocal, verbal, and embodied resources in displaying agreement and affiliation.

• Sundqvist, Pia & Sandlund, Erica (2026). Extramural English and social interaction: Examining L2 speaking and interactional competence in high-input contexts. ITL - International Journal of Applied Linguistics. ISSN 0019-0829. doi: 10.1075/itl.25024.sun. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Research shows that adolescents learn English as a foreign/second language (L2) extramurally, but few studies have explored the connection between extramural English (EE), speaking, and interactional competence (IC). This exploratory mixed-methods study investigates 21 10th-grade L2 English learners in Norway and Flanders who answered an EE questionnaire and participated in a video-recorded speaking test (National English Speaking Test, NEST). They were assessed on speaking and IC. Results showed a slight significant correlation between total EE and NEST scores ( r s  = .462, p  = .047), a strong correlation between the factor “EE Social Interaction” and NEST scores ( r s  = .696, p  < .001), but no correlations with the IC-score. However, close analyses (Conversation Analysis) of recorded interaction data indicated an EE — IC relation in terms of displayed competencies.

• Rindal, Ulrikke & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Exploring six-year-olds’ L2 English digital learning in the home. ELT Journal. ISSN 0951-0893. doi: 10.1093/elt/ccaf039. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Young L2 English learners constitute an underresearched group in the fields of L2 acquisition and ELT. However, emerging research has shown that young children learn English informally, even prior to formal instruction in school, often influenced by their engagement in English-language media, such as watching YouTube and gaming. This study adopts an ethnographic perspective to explore how three six-year-olds in Norway engage with English-language media platforms and games in their homes, and how such engagement influences L2 learning. The study’s focus is on methodological and ethical issues when researching children in private spheres. Data were collected through a show-and-tell procedure which demanded thorough ethnographic groundwork and considerable researcher flexibility. The findings showed that all three homes offered affordances for L2 learning. We argue that in order to capture socially situated engagement with digital technologies, it was crucial to collect data in the actual socially situated practice in the young learners’ homes.

• Sundqvist, Pia; Sandund, Erica; Källkvist, Marie & Gyllstad, Henrik (2022). Language practices in English classrooms: Guest editors’ introduction to the special issue. Languages. 7(4). doi: 10.3390/languages7040291. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Reinders, Hayo; Lai, Chun & Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Introduction: Language Learning and Teaching Beyond the Classroom. I Reinders, Hayo; Lai, Chun & Sundqvist, Pia (Red.), The Routledge handbook of language learning and teaching beyond the classroom. Routledge. ISSN 9781003048169. s. 1–6. doi: 10.4324/9781003048169-1. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Out-of-class language learning constitutes an important context for language learning. This introductory chapter explains what we mean by language learning and teaching beyond the classroom (LLTBC), by comparing it with the terminology used in prior literature. We propose LLTBC as the broadest term and the one we adopt in the Handbook. We also lay out the three objectives of our book: to enhance conceptual clarity on issues related to LLTBC, to accumulate the insights into how LLTBC may be shaped by external forces and be supported, and to provide a collection of innovative methods in researching LLTBC.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Extramural English in language education. I Mohebbi, Hassan & Coombe, Christine (Red.), Research questions in language education and applied linguistics: A reference guide. Springer. ISSN 9783030791421. s. 201–205. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-79143-8_37. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Learning across the lifespan: Age, language learning, and technology. I Ziegler, Nicole & González-Lloret, Marta (Red.), The Routledge handbook of second language acquisition and technology. Routledge. ISSN 9781351117586. s. 343–355. doi: 10.4324/9781351117586-30. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv

Se alle arbeider i NVA

• Reinders, Hayo; Lai, Chun & Sundqvist, Pia (2022). The Routledge handbook of language learning and teaching beyond the classroom. Routledge. ISBN 9781003048169. 441 s. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv

Se alle arbeider i NVA

• Heie, Magnus; Hansebakken, Guro Sollie & Rindal, Ulrikke (2026). Norske 12-åringer: – Britisk-engelsk er «cringe» - Forskningsnytt. [Internet]. Universitetet i Oslo nettsider. doi: https:/www.uio.no/english/research/research-news/articles/2026/british-english-cringe.html. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Amerikansk-engelsk er blitt det normale. – Dette påvirker hvordan unge mennesker snakker engelsk, og hva de selv tenker om det engelske språket, sier forsker Ulrikke Rindal.

• Källkvist, Marie; Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2026). In search for policy: a systematic literature review of starting age in formal EFL education world-wide. doi: https:/www.umu.se/sprakstudier/forskning/konferenser/sprakets-roll-i-en-utmanande-tid/. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Starting age for publicly funded English-as-a-Foreign-Language (EFL) instruction ranges between 6 and 13 in Europe (Källkvist et al., 2025). World-wide and in Europe, more and more countries start as early as 6–7. Interestingly, this goes against research on student proficiency outcomes; in Europe, studies consistently show that later starters (10–11 years) perform as well as early starters (age 6–7) when leaving compulsory school (Pfenninger & Singleton, 2017). In light of this tension between educational language policy and evidence, we are conducting a systematic literature review of empirical studies examining the effect of starting age of formal EFL teaching world-wide. Like other systematic reviews, we aim to provide a synthesis “of the state of knowledge in a field” (Page et al., 2021, p. 1). Importantly, our systematic review goes beyond studies of EFL proficiency outcomes by also including research that takes a holistic approach (Pfenninger & Singleton, 2017) to EFL teaching and learning, paying attention also to student and teacher perceptions, experiences and beliefs. Relying on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Page et al., 2021), five data bases were searched around the domains of English as a second/foreign language instruction AND education* policy AND start* age OR early start*, resulting in 1,097 records, then reduced to 33 following removals of duplicates and off-topic records. Included studies are empirical, using starting age of EFL formal education as one variable and represent contexts across the globe. In this paper, we address three questions: 1) What geopolitical areas are covered in the research reviewed?, 2) What is the reported starting age in these contexts?, and 3) What are the fin

• Sundqvist, Pia; Gyllstad, Henrik; Källkvist, Marie; Peters, Elke; Rindal, Ulrikke & Sandlund, Erica [Vis alle 8 forfattere av denne artikkelen] (2025). STAGE English Teacher Day 2025. doi: https:/www.uv.uio.no/ils/english/research/projects/stage/events/seminars/stage-english-teacher-day-2025.html. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2025). STAGE Research Webinar 2025. doi: https:/www.uv.uio.no/ils/english/research/projects/stage/events/seminars/stage-researcher-webinar-2025.html. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Rindal, Ulrikke & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Affordances for informal L2 learning in the home: Emotion and engagement with English amongst 6-year-olds. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Research has shown that self-initiated engagement with English outside school – extramural English (EE) – is related to the development of foreign/second language (L2) English proficiency (Sundqvist, 2009). Since learners do activities they enjoy while using their L2, EE reflects both emotional and cognitive engagement (Sundqvist & Uztosun, 2023). However, limited research has explored young learners using digital technologies in their L2. This paper presents a study exploring EE engagement among three 6-year-olds (1st-graders) through informal interviews with artefacts in combination with observations in the home (Coupland & Creese, 2015). The participants, one with a high score (Bro) and two with medium scores (Celine and Marcus) on a picture vocabulary test, were sampled from the [anonymized] project. Audio recordings of home interviews and field notes were analyzed inductively to explore how engagement with games, YouTube and music created affordances for L2 learning in the home. The results showed how Bro, Celine and Marcus were exposed to English-speaking media and actively engaged with English using digital platforms. Their engagement was characterized by social interaction and shared interests with family members, in homes with generally positive attitudes towards multilingualism and encouragement of English language use. Overall, the results suggest that a combination of positive attitudes and access to technical devices affords incidental L2 English learning in the home. Such kinds of EE engagement will most likely influence learners’ proficiency in different ways, suggesting it might be challenging for teachers to elicit latent competence in the youngest learners. Informal conversations with the participants’ teacher suggested that Bro’s above-average L2 English vocabulary knowledge developed from extensive gaming remained undiscovered in the first months of schooling, while Celine’s music interest and initiated dialogues about everyday topics as well as use of idiomatic expressions might have been more accessible during English lessons.

• Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2025). Starting age and extramural English: Learning English in and outside of school in input-rich settings. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  This colloquium aims to advance our understanding of the relation between language input and foreign/second/additional language (L2) acquisition. The colloquium papers discuss mechanisms underlying language learning amongst learners exposed to and who use large amounts of English outside school, but who have different starting ages for formal English instruction. Focus is on learners from Norway and Flanders, two similar regions as to learners’ informal out-of-school English exposure–i.e., extramural English (EE)–but different in starting age. While Norway has an early start for English instruction in grade 1, Flanders starts late in grades 7 or 8. Comparing learners’ EE and English proficiency at three school levels (grades 1, 6, and 10) in both settings affords investigating the role of starting age for formal instruction in “high-EE” contexts, which is a known research gap. After a 5-minute introduction, the colloquium includes four 18-minute paper presentations connected to the theme, each followed by questions from the audience (5 minutes), with a 5-minute break after the third paper. An invited discussant will offer comments on the papers as well as audience contributions, synthesizing the discussion (15 minutes). The colloquium ends with a 3-minute closing. Paper 1 presents a systematic literature review focusing on educational policy on the starting age of L2 English teaching world-wide. Paper 2 is a study on 1st-graders where parents’ reported EE activity for their child significantly affected receptive vocabulary knowledge, as did word frequency; boys scored slightly better than girls, and the top scorers were avid gamers. Paper 3 is a case study based on home interviews with 6-year-olds; it highlights the affordances for informal learning in the home and the role of emotion. Paper 4 compares findings on L2 English vocabulary knowledge among learners in grades 1, 6, and 10 in Norway (early starters) and Flanders (late starters).

• Skar, Gustaf B.; Gyllstad, Henrik & Ulfat, Nasrin (2025). Early and late formal English instruction starting age: L2 vocabulary knowledge in Norway and Flanders. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Gyllstad, Henrik; Rindal, Ulrikke; Skar, Gustaf B. & Ulfat, Nasrin (2025). First-graders receptive L2 vocabulary knowledge in relation to Extramural English exposure prior to formal instruction. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Källkvist, Marie; Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2025). Educational policy on starting age of formal L2 English teaching world-wide: A systematic literature review. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Sandlund, Erica & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Methods for doing agreement: High-scoring L2 English learners’ interactional competence in two different educational contexts. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  While the concept of foreign/second language interactional competence (L2 IC) has been in use since the 1980s (e.g., Salaberry & Kunitz, 2019; Young, 1999), empirical research on what should count as evidence of L2 IC has grown exponentially in recent years, particularly drawing on work in Conversation Analysis (CA) (Hall et al., 2011; Sacks et al., 1974). In this line of research, it is argued that recurrent participation in L2 conversation is key to the development of L2 IC, in which learners gradually acquire the ability to accomplish an increasing variety of L2-appropriate social actions (Salaberry & Kunitz, 2019). In this presentation, we are interested in the relationship between L2 IC on the one hand, and the role of formal and informal learning on the other. Comparing Norway and Flanders, two contexts where learners’ exposure to English outside of school is high but where the starting age of formal instruction differs (grade 1 Norway; grade 7 or 8 Flanders), we focus on one facet of L2 IC: the interactional management of disagreement (see, e.g., Busby, 2024; Puimège & Peters, 2019). Previous research has shown that learners gradually master more advanced methods for accomplishing disagreement as their proficiency and participation in L2 interaction increases (e.g., Čekaitė, 2007; Pekarek Doehler & Pochon-Berger, 2011). Data was collected within the STAGE project, which addresses the relationship between English proficiency on the one hand, and the onset of formal instruction and input from extramural English (Sundqvist, 2024) on the other, across a range of language abilities. For this presentation, we focus on speaking, drawing on a corpus of 24 conversational speaking tests collected in grade 10 in Norway and Flanders using the Swedish National English Speaking Test for grade 9 (NAFS Project, n.d.) as test materials. Learners assigned the highest scores by three individual raters were selected for detailed analysis using CA, with a particular focus on the accomplishment of disagreement, as the ability to express diverging opinions and perspectives is key in the test tasks and assessment criteria employed. In our presentation, we will focus on recurring patterns of doing disagreement, and the observations will be discussed in light of the role of starting age versus extramural English in the two educational contexts.

• Sundqvist, Pia; Peters, Elke; Skar, Gustaf Bernhard Uno & Gyllstad, Henrik (2025). Study Protocol: STarting AGe and Extramural English: Learning English in and Outside of School in Norway and Flanders (STAGE). doi: 10.30564/fls.v7i8.10412. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  This Study Protocol article outlines the aims, theory, and methodology of a 4-year project that primarily seeks to enhance our understanding of the role of starting age and Extramural English. The project unravels the language proficiency of individuals studying English as a foreign or second language (L2) who encounter substantial exposure to English outside school (extramural English, EE), but begin formal English instruction at varying ages. The focus is on two regions: Norway, where formal English education commences early (grade 1, ages 6–7), and Flanders, where it begins later (grades 7 or 8, ages12–14). The overarching project aim is to evaluate whether an early introduction to formal English instruction influences learners'language proficiency and development within contexts abundant in EE exposure, hence the chosen regions. The article is structured into four sections. First, the introduction presents the main objective, provides a theoretical background and previous research, and ends by suggesting that the project will make a substantial and innovative contribution to theories of L2 proficiency, and also contribute with scientific knowledge that will have societal impact. The second section provides an account of the research questions and our predictions, the material and methods, and the measures connected with each of the five research questions that guide the project. Section three offers a discussion that addresses the cross-sectional design and sample size (aim: N = 900), as well as potential limitations. Section four addresses ethics and project dissemination.The article ends with information about funding and acknowledgments.

• Sundqvist, Pia; Gyllstad, Henrik; Skar, Gustaf B. & Peters, Elke (2025). Different starting age – similar exposure to English: Comparing L2 vocabulary knowledge in Norway and Flanders. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  An early start for foreign/second language (L2) English instruction is a global trend. However, the research evidence for the potential benefits of an early start remains inconclusive (see e.g., Baumert et al., 2020; Jaekel et al., 2022), and little is known about its role in settings where learners regularly encounter English outside school (extramural English, EE). This study explores L2 English learners’ vocabulary knowledge in two settings, similarly EE-rich but different regarding starting age: Norway (early, age ~6) and Flanders (late, age ~13–14). The participants were first-, sixth-, and tenth-grade students. Sixth- (n = 411) and tenth-grade (n = 402) participants took the 96-item Picture Vocabulary Size Test (PVST, Anthony & Nation, 2017); first-graders (n = 118) took a shortened, age-appropriate 31-item version. Data were analysed with an item response theory (IRT) two-parameter logistic model, using R-package “mirt” (Chalmers, 2012). The overall reliability was a=.95. Average student scores were set to 0, and negative value thus denoted a value below the mean. The average score for first-graders was -1.25 (SD=0.4), sixth-graders -0.18 (SD=0.61), and tenth-graders 0.46 (SD=0.91). The average score for Norway was 0.02 (SD=0.98), and for Flanders -0.05 (SD=0.98). We estimated regression equations for grades 6 and 10. A multilevel approach indicated substantial clustering effects. The parameter estimate for grade 6 was b=1.05 (p<.001), for grade 10 b=1.71 (S.E.=0.1, p<.001), and for country b=0.05 (p=.580). The estimate for interaction parameters (grade × country) was b=0.12 (p=.701) for grade 6 × Norway and b=0.08 (p=.692) for grade 10 × Norway. The results indicate that starting age (early versus late) was not a significant predictor of vocabulary knowledge. This could imply that formal English instruction does not play a decisive role for L2 English vocabulary size. Instead, students’ exposure to extramural English is likely to be a main contributing factor.

• Rindal, Ulrikke & Sundqvist, Pia (2025). Very young learners’ emotional engagement with extramural English: Affordances for incidental L2 learning in the home. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Research shows that self-initiated engagement with English outside school – extramural English (EE) – is related to the development of foreign/second language (L2) English proficiency (Sundqvist, 2011). Increasingly, such engagement occurs through digital devices also for young learners. Since learners use their L2 when involved in digital activities they enjoy, EE reflects positive emotional engagement with technologies, which might potentially influence motivation and willingness to learn English in school (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; Kruk & Pawlak, 2022). However, limited research has explored very young learners using digital technologies in their L2. This study explores EE engagement among three 6-year-olds through informal interviews with digital artefacts in combination with observations in the home (Coupland & Creese, 2015). The participants – Bro, Celine and Marcus – were sampled based on ethnographic groundwork, including conversations with teachers and parents, school interviews, EE questionnaires, and a shortened version of the Picture Vocabulary Size Test, PVST-S (Anthony & Nation, 2017). Data were collected through a show-and-tell procedure, where the 6-year-olds demonstrated their engagement with digital platforms in English, while reflecting on language use and learning. Audio recordings of interviews and field notes were analyzed inductively, and results showed how the very young learners were exposed to English-speaking media and actively engaged with English using digital platforms. Their engagement was characterized by social interaction and shared interests with family members, in homes with generally positive attitudes towards multilingualism and encouragement of using English. The children thus experienced positive emotions through L2 engagement. Overall, the results suggest that a combination of positive attitudes and access to technical devices affords incidental L2 English learning in the home. Such engagement will most likely influence learners’ proficiency differently, suggesting it might be challenging for teachers to elicit latent competence in young learners. Informal conversations with the participants’ teacher suggested that Bro’s above-average vocabulary knowledge (evidenced in a top PVST-S score), developed from extensive gaming, remained undiscovered in the first months of schooling, whereas Celine’s music interest, dialogues about everyday topics, and use of idiomatic English expressions might have been more accessible during lessons. In this presentation, we describe the 6-year-olds’ engagement with digital technologies using rich descriptions and artistic illustrations of situational interactions from the home interviews. For each participant, we discuss how teachers can draw on their EE engagement with technology in classroom contexts to enhance L2 development.

• Sundqvist, Pia & Sandlund, Erica (2025). Examining L2 speaking and interactional competence in high-input contexts. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Research shows that many young people learn English as a foreign/second language (L2) not only in the classroom but also extramurally, when engaged in activities such as watching videos and playing digital games (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2016). While several studies reveal relations between such extramural English engagement and, e.g., vocabulary knowledge and listening and reading skills, and point to the importance of English in learners’ everyday lives (e.g., De Wilde et al., 2020; Puimège & Peters, 2019), to date, few studies have explored the connection between EE and speaking. To address this gap, this study investigates tenth-grade (age 15–16) L2 English learners who answered an EE questionnaire and participated in a small-group, video-recorded speaking test as part of the STAGE project in Norway and Flanders (Belgium), two input-rich contexts as regards English. For this study, we sampled participants who scored high on a questionnaire-factor called “EE Social Interaction”. Three raters assessed their speaking proficiency holistically and independently using a 9-point scale, and two experts on L2 interactional competence (L2 IC, e.g., Salaberry & Kunitz, 2019) provided ratings informed by conversation analysis (Sidnell & Stivers, 2013) specifically focusing on test-takers’ IC. The first research question addresses the correlation between EE and speaking proficiency, and the second the correlation between EE and L2 IC. Analysis is ongoing, using inferential statistics, assessment data, and the CA-informed ratings. Preliminary findings indicate a positive relation between EE and speaking (RQ1) and interactional competence (RQ2). In this workshop, we will present the study and its results, and discuss pedagogical implications. References De Wilde, V., Brysbaert, M., & Eyckmans, J. (2020). Learning English through out-of-scho.Which levels of language proficiency are attained and which types of input are important? Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(1), 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918001062 Puimège, E., & Peters, E. (2019). Learners' English vocabulary knowledge prior to formal instruction: The role of learner-related and word-related factors. Language Learning, 69(4), 943–977. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12364 Salaberry, M. R., & Kunitz, S. (Eds.). (2019). Teaching and testing L2 interactional competence: Bridging theory and practice. Routledge. Sidnell, J., & Stivers, T. (Eds.). (2013). The handbook of conversation analysis. Wiley-Blackwell. Sundqvist, P., & Sylvén, L. K. (2016). Extramural English in teaching and learning: From theory and research to practice. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-46048-6

• Sundqvist, Pia & Ulfat, Nasrin (2024). Another STAGE for learning: Starting age of formal instruction, extramural English, and L2 English proficiency levels. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  This presentation is part of STAGE [STarting AGe and Extramural English], a project whose aim is to provide insights into the input-acquisition relationship by unraveling the relative contribution of formal instruction and extramural English (EE, Sundqvist, 2009) to second/foreign language (L2) learners’ English proficiency. Specifically, the project investigates the impact of an early start of formal instruction in an input-rich context by comparing early starters in Norway (English introduced in grade 1; i.e., similar to Sweden, grades 1–3) and late starters in Flanders (English introduced in grade 7/8). Using a cross-sectional design, learners in both settings are compared in grade 1 (age 5–6, baseline data), grade 6 (age 11–12), and grade 10 (age 15–16) in terms of their EE, vocabulary knowledge, reading comprehension, and speaking. Thus, the starting age of instruction differs, but both contexts are similar regarding the omnipresence of out-of-school English. The study presented is grounded in theories about L2 acquisition: sociocultural theory (Lantolf & Thorne, 2006) and usage-based perspectives on learning (Cadierno & Eskildsen, 2015). Results from research show, e.g., that in regions where L2 TV programs are subtitled (L1), learners tend to have large amounts of EE from an early age (Hannibal Jensen, 2017), as English is the dominant language of popular culture; such regions have advantages in terms of L2 learning. Studies exploring EE and L2 learning have consistently shown benefits of EE, for both instructed learners (Lindgren & Muñoz, 2013; Peters et al., 2019) and learners without any formal instruction yet (De Wilde et al., 2020; Puimège & Peters, 2019). While there is EE-research examining its relation to L2 proficiency, to date, there have been no controlled, large-scale studies comparing the association between different types of EE (e.g., gaming, watching television) and various proficiency measures in different age groups across different instructional contexts. Regarding starting age for L2 instruction, unlike for immigrant learners in naturalistic L2 learning settings (DeKeyser, 2011), there does not seem to be an age effect. An early start does not necessarily result in higher L2 proficiency when the weekly lesson time is limited; in fact, late starters catch up quickly because of higher cognitive maturity (Jaekel et al., 2017; Pfenninger & Singleton, 2017). Quantity and quality of input are more important predictors of L2 proficiency (Muñoz, 2014). Moreover, so far, research into early instruction has mainly been conducted in regions where English exposure tends to be limited to school, with very little research into the long-term effects of an early start in regions providing large amounts of EE. In our presentation, focus is on quantitative findings about characteristics of EE in Norway and Flanders. Data consist of questionnaires, language diaries, and interviews. A non-probability sampling methods was used (Dörnyei & Taguchi, 2010); the sample was a carefully selected convenience sample (Norway: N=579; Flanders: N=c. 450, to be completed). Quantitative data are currently being analyzed. EE is expected to be similar in both settings at all three levels. The results will be discussed considering the symposium theme.

• Rindal, Ulrikke (2024). You do you, lissom. Sosiolingvistiske ressurser i det digitale engelskspråklige landskapet. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Økt mediatisering (Androutsopoulos, 2014) har ført til utstrakt deltakelse i et digitalt engelskspråklig landskap («the digital wilds», jf. Sauro & Zourou, 2019) blant norske ungdommer. I dette foredraget vil jeg presentere en studie om hva slags rolle engelsk i digitale landskap spiller for ungdommers bruk av engelsk, basert på semi-strukturerte intervjuer med seks deltakere i alderen 15-16 år. Studien er en del av forskningsprosjektet STAGE, som undersøker forholdet mellom elevers selv-initierte bruk av engelsk på fritiden og utviklingen av engelskferdigheter (Universitetet i Oslo, 2021). For å utforske hvordan deltakelse i det engelskspråklige medielandskapet kan påvirke engelsk språkbruk, har jeg kombinert en tematisk analyse av rapporterte oppfatninger og praksiser knyttet til språkbruk og språklæring med analyser av tilfeller der deltakerne kodebyttet til engelsk i intervjuene. Funnene viste at engelske språkformer fra det digitale medielandskapet kan ha «dobbeltstemme-kvaliteter» (Androutsopoulos, 2014): Spesifikke språkformer (av eksemplariske språkbrukere, jf. Agha, 2003) kunne bli forsøkt appropriert som del av en kontekstuell relevant identitet (for eksempel kunne britiskengelske former indeksere eleganse), men kunne også brukes som en disassosiasjon der formålet var ironi eller parodi (for eksempel imitasjon av stiliserte engelske aksenter i underholdningsøyenmed). Det virket som at mediafragmenter på engelsk (heller enn en engelsk varietet i sin helhet) ble meningsbærende i ungdommenes sosiolingvistiske repertoar. Funnene antyder eierskap og kreativitet i tilegnelse av engelsk fra det digitale landskapet, men med noen begrensninger i den språkkompetansen som er forventet i kommunikasjonssituasjoner og i engelskfaget på skolen. For eksempel virket det som utstrakt eksponering for såkalte sminke-tutorials (korte videoer der en person, som oftest en kjendis, legger sminke med muntlige instruksjoner) kunne føre til at deltakerne selvsikkert kunne imitere tutorial-sjangeren på egenhånd, men opplevde engelsk interaksjon med andre språkbrukere som utfordrende. Referanser Agha, A. (2003). The social life of cultural value. Language and Communication, 23, 231-273. Androutsopoulos, J. (2014). Mediatization and sociolinguistic change. Key concepts, research traditions, open issues. I A. Jannis (red.), Mediatization and Sociolinguistic Change (pp. 3-48). Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter. Sauro, S., & Zourou, K. (2019). What are the digital wilds? Language learning & technology, 23(1), 1-7. doi:https://doi.org/10125/44666 Universitetet i Oslo. (2021). STartAlder og extramural enGElsk: Å lære engelsk i og utenfor skolen i Norge og Flandern (STAGE). Hentet fra https://www.uv.uio.no/stage

• Ulfat, Nasrin (2024). Language learning and escapism: How five Norwegian adolescents escape reality by reading and/or gaming extramurally in L2 English. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Rindal, Ulrikke (2024). Engelskundervisning med hånddukken Lucy. Bedre Skole. ISSN 0802-183X. 1, s. 39–43. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Sundqvist, Pia; Gyllstad, Henrik; Peters, Elke; Rindal, Ulrikke; Skar, Gustaf B. & Ulfat, Nasrin (2024). First-graders know L2 English vocabulary – viewing, gaming, YouTube. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  This presentation uncovers the relation between very young second/foreign language learners’ English vocabulary knowledge and extramural English (EE, Sundqvist, 2009). Research has shown that music, gaming, and TV are important EE sources (Puimège & Peters, 2019) and indicated gender-related differences for EE and vocabulary (Hannibal Jensen, 2017). Data were collected from 60 1st-graders (aged 5–6) in Norway: learner and parental questionnaires, and a shortened (k=31) Picture Vocabulary Size Test (Anthony & Nation, 2017). Results-wise, participants knew on average 12.32 words (SD=5.13). Gamers scored higher than non-gamers; no gender-related EE or vocabulary differences were found. The presentation ends with a glimpse of SYLT-VOC, a test for young learners.

• Peters, Elke & Sundqvist, Pia (2024). The role of starting age for L2 English proficiency in input-rich settings: The case of Flanders and Sweden. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  This presentation discusses the role of starting age of formal English instruction for English listening comprehension and vocabulary knowledge in two input-rich learning settings, Flanders and Sweden. It aims to contribute to the ongoing debate on early foreign/second (L2) instruction. An early start for L2 English instruction is on the rise in Europe, as most countries are now offering L2 classes in primary schools (Nikolov, 2009). Nevertheless, the research evidence for the potential benefits of an early start remains inconclusive. Some studies have found positive effects of an early start (e.g., De Graaff, 2015; Jaekel et al., 2022), while others failed to show any advantage for early starters compared to late starters (e.g., Baumert et al., 2020; Pfenninger & Singleton, 2017). However, most studies have been conducted in countries with relatively little out-of-school contact with L2 English (Mu˜noz & Cadierno, 2021; Schurz & Sundqvist, 2022). Still, little is known about the effects of early L2 instruction in input-rich learning settings, where learners regularly come into contact with English outside of school, often referred to as extramural English (Sundqvist, 2009). The research contexts of this exploratory study are Flanders (Dutch-speaking region in Belgium) and Sweden. Unlike Sweden, where children receive their first English lessons in grade 1, 2, or 3 (age 7–9), children in Flanders start with formal English instruction in grade 7 (age 12–13) or 8 (age 13–14). Both regions are settings where L2 English learners have large amounts of extramural English (De Wilde et al., 2020; Peters et al., 2019; Puimège & Peters, 2019; Sundqvist, 2009; Sundqvist & Wikström, 2015). Our study includes participants aged 11–13 (Younger Group, n = 139) and 15–16 (Older Group, n = 52) in Sweden and Flanders (N = 191). The Flemish learners in the Younger Group had had no English instruction at the time of data collection. Data were collected through a questionnaire tapping into learners’ extramural English, a listening comprehension test, the Picture Vocabulary Size Test (PVST, Anthony & Nation, 2017), and the Vocabulary Size Test (VST, Nation & Beglar, 2007). The VST was only administered to the Older Group. The findings indicated that starting age had a large effect on learners’ listening comprehension in the Younger Group with higher scores for the early starters (Sweden) (t = 10.019, p < .001, Cohen’s d = 1.839), but not in the Older Group. Regarding vocabulary knowledge, there were no differences between the early and late starters in the Younger Group. However, the late starters (Flanders) significantly outperformed the early starters (Sweden) in the Older Group on the PVST and the effect was large (t = -3.255, p = .002, Cohen’s d = 0.903). They also obtained higher scores on the VST, but not significantly so (t = -1;164, p = .250, Cohen’s d = 0.323, medium effect). The presentation concludes with some implications for L2 English instruction.

• Brevik, Lisbeth M.; Blikstad-Balas, Marte; Gudmundsdottir, Greta Björk; Ulfat, Nasrin & Gamlem, Siv Therese Måseidvåg (2024). Skolens tilstand: Hva vet vi nå om det digitale klasserommet? Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Rindal, Ulrikke & Sundqvist, Pia (2024). Oh my gosh! Emotion and engagement with extramural English among 6-year-olds. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Research has shown that self-initiated engagement with English outside school – extramural English (EE) – is related to the development of foreign/second language (L2) English proficiency (Sundqvist, 2009). Since learners do activities they enjoy while using their L2, EE reflects both emotional and cognitive engagement (Sundqvist & Uztosun, 2023). However, limited research has explored young learners using digital technologies in their L2. This paper presents a study exploring EE engagement among three 6-year-olds (1st-graders) through informal interviews with artefacts in combination with observations in the home (Coupland & Creese, 2015). The participants, one with a high score (Bro) and two with medium scores (Celine and Marcus) on a picture vocabulary test, were sampled from the STAGE project (University of Oslo, 2021). Audio recordings of home interviews and field notes were analysed inductively to explore how engagement with games, YouTube and music created affordances for L2 learning in the home. The results showed how Bro, Celine and Marcus were exposed to English-speaking media and actively engaged with English using digital platforms. Their engagement was characterised by social interaction and shared interests with family members, in homes with generally positive attitudes towards multilingualism and encouragement of English language use. Overall, the results suggest that a combination of positive attitudes and access to technical devices affords incidental L2 English learning in the home. Such type of EE engagement will most likely influence learners’ proficiency in different ways, suggesting it might be challenging for teachers to elicit latent competence in the youngest learners. Informal conversations with the participants’ teacher suggested that Bro’s above-average L2 English vocabulary knowledge developed from extensive gaming remained undiscovered in the first months of schooling, while Celine’s music interest and initiated dialogues about everyday topics as well as idiomatic expressions (e.g., ”Oh my gosh!”) might have been more accessible during English lessons.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2024). A revised L2 English learning pyramid: The importance of extramural English for informal learning and formal instruction. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  In this talk, I will focus on research on informal foreign/second language (L2) learning with a focus on English as a target language and using the concept of extramural English (EE, Sundqvist, 2011). This type of research takes an interest in learners’ self-initiated engagement with L2 English outside the walls of the classroom through activities such as listening to music, playing digital games, reading, and watching videos. Many (but not all) young people are frequently involved in such EE activities and their engagement encompasses at least three distinct, yet interrelated, dimensions: behavioral, cognitive, and emotional/affective engagement (Fredricks et al., 2016; Sundqvist & Uztosun, 2023). Research amongst young and teenage learners have shown positive relations between EE and various aspects of L2 English proficiency, such as vocabulary knowledge, writing, speaking, and comprehension (Zhang et al., 2021). However, in comparison, young learners (age 6–12) are clearly under-researched. In my presentation, I will focus on findings from EE research among mainly young but also teenage learners in contexts such as Belgium (e.g., De Wilde & Eyckmans, 2017; Puimège & Peters, 2019), Scandinavia (e.g., Hannibal Jensen, 2017; Sundqvist, 2019; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012), Spain (e.g., Soto-Corominas et al., 2024), and Greece (e.g., Rothoni, 2017), and discuss the pedagogical implications. In many contexts, it appears that EE has replaced classroom activities as the starting point for, and foundation of, learning English, which I view as a structural change. I will illustrate this change by use of a revised version of the L2 English learning pyramid (first introduced in Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2016). Finally, I will argue that informal learning of English through engagement in EE constitutes an important individual difference variable that should never be overlooked in any studies that aim to measure L2 English proficiency or development (Sundqvist, 2024).

• Rindal, Ulrikke Elisabeth (2023). The role of English for young Norwegians. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  The role of English for young Norwegians This contribution reports a study that explores ideologies of English among children and adolescents in Norway. The paper presents data from qualitative interviews with 12 participants aged 6, 11 and 15 who have English as an additional language (L2), investigating how their English language practices relate to identity work and experiences of ownership of English. English does not have any official status in Norway, but formal instruction begins year 1, and English is a mandatory school subject for 11 years with its own curriculum separate from other foreign languages. Children and adolescents are daily exposed to considerable amounts of English outside of school, particularly through popular and social media. Although traditionally categorised as a ‘foreign’ language in Norway, English is today “simply a fact of 21st-century life” for young Norwegians (Linn, 2016, p. 201). The interview study is part of the research project STAGE – STarting AGe and Extramural English, which investigates the relative influence of extramural English (self-initiated English use outside of school) on English language proficiency (Sundqvist, 2023). STAGE is a multiple-method study with participants from grades 1, 6 and 10 from Norway and Flanders, Belgium (N=900), including data from language logs, questionnaires and various proficiency tests. The interview participants (N=12) are selected from the larger STAGE sample based on the quantitative data sources, aiming to include participants with various linguistic and cultural backgrounds. The participants are interviewed in pairs in a room at their school. In addition, I visit the youngest participants in their home to conduct additional informal interviews with artefacts in combination with observations. Interviews across all levels are semi-structured, with age-appropriate operationalisations of concepts related to language ideologies. Based on informal conversations with a selection of the participants, the data is expected to show how English is related to media and the internet, and different from the English taught in school. Participants at all levels are expected to consider English a language that they acquire naturally. The older participants are expected to engage on interactive digital platforms outside of school that are closely related to their interests and identities, thus involving English in their identity work. Increased extramural English adds to an already multifaceted sociolinguistic climate in Norway, leading to complex ideologies related to English. The role of English for young Norwegians challenges traditional categorisations where the status of English is defined by national borders (e.g., Kachru, 1985), and has considerable implications for how English is taught in school and in higher education. Kachru, B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk & H. G. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (pp. 11-30). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Linn, A. (2016). Investigating English in Europe: Contexts and Agendas. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Sundqvist, P. (2023). Starting age and extramural English: Learning English in and outside of school in Norway and Flanders (STAGE). Retrieved from https://www.uv.uio.no/ils/english/research/projects/stage/

• Sundqvist, Pia (2023). Walk the line: Teaching L2 English and young learners’ gaming inside and outside the classroom. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Sundqvist, Pia (2023). Skal sammenligne engelsknivået i Norge og Belgia. [Journal]. A-magasinet. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Gyllstad, Henrik; Sundqvist, Pia; Peters, Elke; Rindal, Ulrikke Elisabeth; Skar, Gustaf B. & Ulfat, Nasrin (2023). Very young children know L2 English vocabulary – viewing, gaming, YouTube. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  This presentation uncovers the relation between young second/foreign language (L2) learners’ English vocabulary knowledge (meaning recognition) and their self-initiated use of English outside school, extramural English (EE, Sundqvist, 2009), and details results relating to individually tested vocabulary target items. To date, research has shown that music, digital games, and TV are important sources of EE (De Wilde et al., 2020; Puimège & Peters, 2019) and indicated gender-related differences in EE use and vocabulary knowledge (Hannibal Jensen, 2017; Sylvén & Sundqvist, 2012), but few studies have targeted very young learners. Data were collected from 60 learners aged 5–6 (grade 1) in Norway, consisting of a learner EE questionnaire (individual and oral administration), a parental questionnaire, and a shortened (k=31) Picture Vocabulary Size Test (Anthony & Nation, 2017) based on age-of-acquisition ratings of target items (Kuperman et al., 2012); an “I don’t know” (IDK) option was added. Measurement-wise, the score reliability was somewhat low but acceptable at .79, and the mean item-total correlation was .30. The participants varied widely as to their use of the IDK option (range 0-20; Mean: 3.62; about 30% never used it). Results-wise, despite young age and very little formal instruction in school, participants knew on average 12.32 words (SD=5.13), a finding relevant to teacher practice. Participants who reported playing video games scored higher than non-gamers but only significantly so for specific items. No gender-related EE or vocabulary differences were found. The presentation ends with a glimpse of SYLT-VOC, a test for young learners (the STAGE project).

• Sundqvist, Pia & Peters, Elke (2022). Teaching L2 English in primary school or not? A comparative pilot study of young learners in input-rich settings with different starting ages of formal English instruction. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  Findings from research on the role of age in foreign/second language (L2) learning are inconclusive, and very few studies include possible learning from engagement in Extramural English activities (EE, Sundqvist, 2009). The two STAGE sister projects aim to fill this gap in research by conducting cross-sectional studies and comparing results for learners in Norway and Flanders (the Dutch-speaking part of Belgium) on measures of English proficiency and EE from three age groups: learners in grade 1 (age 6–7), grade 6 (age 11–12), and grade 10 (age 15–16). Norway and Flanders are comparable societies with similar education systems and access to English, but different starting points for English instruction in school: early in Norway (grade 1) and late in Flanders (grade 7/8). This presentation presents the results from a pilot study involving participants aged 11–13 in Sweden (a country similar to Norway, early start) and Flanders (N=144). Data were collected through an EE-questionnaire, a listening comprehension test, and the Picture Vocabulary Size Test (PVST, Anthony & Nation, 2017). Data were analyzed quantitatively. While participants’ engagement in EE was very similar among participants from both settings in terms of frequency and types of preferred EE activities (e.g., listening to music and gaming), the early starters scored higher than the later starters on both tests, which might indicate a positive effect from having received formal instruction (Swedish participants), as opposed to only having been exposed to EE (Flemish participants). Implications for English language teaching and educational policy will be discussed.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Extramural English, media influence, and identity: Focus on Swedish L2 English learners and changed self-perceptions. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  In my presentation, I will draw on research on extramural English and what it has taught us about the informal learning of English in out-of-school settings on the one hand, and the crucial role of media in the lifeworlds of young people on the other. Extramural English (EE) refers to ‘English outside the walls of the classroom’ in activities such as listening to music, watching streamed media content, reading books, and online gaming. EE activities are always initiated by the learners themselves, generally for the purpose of entertainment. However, both incidental and intentional (and online and offline) learning of L2 English is covered by the concept. Based on survey and interview data collected over a decade, I have had the opportunity to examine learners’ EE habits from middle school until the end of lower secondary school. In my presentation, I will present some preliminary findings and let learner voices speak to the audience. It will become clear how former learners of English have turned into daily users of English who, contrary to popular belief, demonstrate advanced English knowledge – according to themselves, not least thanks to their consumption of English media.

• Peters, Elke (2022). Out-of-school language learning from foreign language media. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Rindal, Ulrikke Elisabeth (2022). English in transition - the status of English in and out of school in Norway. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Sundqvist, Pia (2022). Young Swedish L2 English learners and changed self-perceptions. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  In this talk, keeping the goal of #YouthMediaLife in mind, I will draw on research on extramural English and what it has taught us about the informal learning of English in out-of-school settings on the one hand, and the crucial role of media in the lifeworlds of young people on the other. Extramural English (EE) refers to ‘English outside the walls of the classroom’ in activities such as listening to music, watching streamed media content, and online gaming. EE activities are always initiated by the learners themselves, generally for the purpose of entertainment. However, both incidental and intentional (and online and offline) learning of L2 English is covered by the concept. Based on survey and interview data collected over a decade, I have had the opportunity to examine some learners’ EE and media engagement from middle school until the end of lower secondary school. In my presentation, I will let some of their voices speak to the audience. It will become clear how former learners of English have turned into daily users of English who, contrary to popular belief, demonstrate advanced English knowledge – not least thanks to their consumption of English media, according to themselves.

• Rindal, Ulrikke Elisabeth (2022). Hvorfor snakker unge engelsk? [TV]. NRK Helgemorgen. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Sundqvist, Pia (2022). The pyramid is upside down: Age, instruction, and L2 English learning. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Rindal, Ulrikke Elisabeth (2022). Forsker på verdien av fritids-engelsken. [Internet]. Utdanningsnytt.no. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv
• Sundqvist, Pia (2022). 15 Years of Researching Extramural English: Lessons Learned for ELT. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  In this talk, keeping the theme of the conference in mind, I will focus on what fifteen years of research on extramural English has taught us about informal learning of English in out-of-school settings, and how such research findings can inform English language teaching (ELT). During this time period, there has been a clear global trend of implementing formal instruction of English as a foreign/second/additional language (L2) early in primary school (Nikolov & Mihaljević Djigunović, 2011), even though there is little empirical evidence that an early start is beneficial for learners in the long run (Muñoz & Singleton, 2011). Interestingly, during the same period, the opportunities for learning English informally have been richer than ever thanks to technological advancements, learners’ increased access to the internet, and the status of English as a global language (Graddol, 2006). Extramural English (EE) refers to ‘English outside the walls of the classroom’ in activities such as listening to music, reading books, watching streamed media content, and online gaming (Sundqvist, 2009). EE activities are initiated by the learners themselves, generally for the purpose of entertainment. However, both incidental and intentional (and online and offline) learning of L2 English is covered by the concept (Sundqvist & Sylvén, 2016). Because EE plays a crucial role in most learners’ daily lives, it is essential that teachers gain knowledge about learners’ EE, but how can that be done, and what are some pedagogical implications for ELT? My presentation aims to shed light on questions such as these.

• Sundqvist, Pia (2021). Online gaming and game-changing: From learning to teaching. Fulltekst i vitenarkiv Vis sammendrag

  In this talk, with the theme of this year’s roundtable in mind, I will outline empirical work on the relationship between online gaming and second/foreign language (L2) learning. From the many perspectives on this topic, I will focus on research that examines how different variables (such as age, gender, and L2 proficiency) are related to different types of learning via game-mediated interactions with young and adolescent learners engaged in a plethora of English-mediated activities outside of school, including listening to music, reading books, watching streamed media content, as well as gaming online. To be able to participate in online gameplay together with others can be an extremely strong motivator for learning English since English tends to be the default language used in massively multiplayer online games. In my plenary address, I explain positive relationships between online gaming (typically so-called commercial-off-the-shelf games) and various aspects of L2 proficiency, discussing factors like ‘time played’ and ‘types of games played’, with some discussion of languages other than English. I will conclude by asking whether gaming might be a game-changer for L2 teaching in the way it has already been for L2 learning.

Se alle arbeider i NVA